'To k) ZO // History of Syriac Literature and Sciences Kitab al-Lulu al-Manthur fi Tarikh al-Ulum wa al-Adab al-Suryaniyya ■ .V Ignatius Aphram Barsoum (1887-1957) Syrian Patriarch of Antioch and All the East History of Syriac Literature and Sciences (Kitab al-Lulu al-Manthur fi Tarikh al-Ulum wa al-Adab al-Suryaniyya) Ey Ignatius Aphram Barsoum (1887-1957) Syrian Patriarch of Antioch and All the East Translated, Edited and with an Introduction By Matti Moosa Passeggiata Press First English Translation of The History of Syriac Literature and Sciences by Patriarch Ingnatius Aphram I Translated by Dr. Matti Moosa Passeggiata Press, 222 West “B” Street, Pueblo, CO 81003 Copyright by the Archdiocese of the Orthodox Church of the Eastern United States Patriarchal Vicarate, 2000 Library' of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Ighnatyus Afram I, Patriarch of Antioch, 1887-1957. [Lu'lu' al-manthur fi tarikha al-'ulum wa-al-adab al-Suryaniyah. English] The history of Syriac literature and sciences = (Kitab al-lulu al-manthur fi tankh Al-ulum wa al-adab al-Suryaniyya) / by Ignatius Aphram Barsoum; translated, edited, and with an introduction by Matti Moosa, --1st English language ed. p.cm. “The original Arabic version of this work was published in 1943 in Hims, Syria... This translation is based on the second reprint. Aleppo, 1956"--Galley. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-57889-103-5 1. Assyrians. 2. Iraq-Civilization. 3. Syriac literature -History and Critism. I. Title: Kitab al- lulu al-manthur fi tarikh al-ulum wa al-adab al-Suryaniyya. II. Moosa, Matti. III. Title. DS70.8 A89 13813 2000 956.7~dc21 00-048730 The photograph of Aphram I is the property of the Archdiocese of the Syrian Orthodox Church for the Eastern States Patriarch Vicarate. The bold script in Syriac above the Lord’s Prayer on the Front cover gives the original title “Unstrung Pearls in the History of Syriac Literature and Science”. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission from the publisher except for brief quotations in reviews and citations in scholarly works. Author’ s Dedication To my venerable mother Susan Abd al-Nur, to whom I owe my good upbringing. May God reward and sustain her. Translator’s Dedication In Loving Memory of Bishop Gregorius Bulus Bahnam (d. 1969) A Luminary of the Syrian Orthodox Church of Antioch Translator’s Introduction The systematic study of Syriac literature and sciences and related subjects was a Western development, begin- ning in Europe at the end of the seventeenth century. Curiously, the Syrians and other Eastern writers have only recently devoted themselves to the scholarly study of Syriac literature. Even the art of poetry, considered one of the Syrians’ foremost literary achievements, has had only scant at- tention from Syrian writers. Now lost is a treatment of that subject by Severus bar Shabbo, a metropolitan of the Monastery of Mar Matta, near Mosul, Iraq, in the early 13th century. In 1875, Rev. Jabrail Qirdahi pub- lished a treatise in Arabic on the meters of Syriac poetry, along with short biographies of some Syrian poets and specimens of their work, but he gave no historical account of its development. In 1896, the Syrian Roman Catholic bishop of Damascus, Monsignor Yusuf Dawood (David), treated Syrian poetry and prosody in the final chapter of his extensive grammar of the Aramaean language. The Rev. Bulus (Paul) Bahnam, the late Syrian Orthodox Metropolitan of Iraq (d. 1969) , wrote for his Arabic magazine al-Mashriq ( 1946-53) a series of articles on Syrian culture. In 1949, two Egyptian profes- sors of Semitic studies at the University of Fuad I in Cairo published a History of Syriac Literature, an unfortu- nate work derivative in character and lacking annota- tion. The first Western study of Syriac literature, by the learned French scholar Eusebe Renaudot, who died in 1720, has been highly praised by J. B. Chabot. 1 This manuscript was never published, however, and was consequently overshadowed by Guiseppe Simone Assemani’s four-volume Bibliotheca Orientalis, the first volume of which appeared in 1719. Later writers on the subject have been more than slightly indebted to this nearly exhaustive work. William Wright’s Syriac Litera- ture (London, 1894) originally appeared in the Encyclo- pedia Britannica in 1887 and was expanded for its post- humous publication in book form. La Litterature Syriaque, by Rubens Duval (Paris, 1889), provides a neatly orga- nized, comprehensive history of Syriac literature down to the 13th century. Still another important work, Geschichte der syrischen Literatur, by Anton Baumstark (Bonn, 1922), presents copious references and notes, but its information seems too compressed for the non- specialist. The second volume of Georg Grafs five- volume Geschichte der christlichen arabischen Literatur (Vatican City, 1944-53) is highly valuable for the study of the Christian literature of tjie Syrian Church follow- ing the Muslim conquest. The study of Syriac literature, then, originated in the East, but was brought to its fullest development by Western writers. As Assemani, an Easterner by birth and tradition, used his important knowledge to shape West- ern ideas on Syriac literature, so today it is the Western- ers following his lead who have formulated the views generally accepted in the East. It is against this rather tenuous, uncertain back- ground that Patriarch Barsoum projects his “Unstrung Pearls.” We can justly appraise his historical account only by acknowledging its indebtedness to earlier schol- arship, yet recognizing its uniqueness in an exagger- ated nationalistic tone and in an unremitting accumu- lation of compendious, detailed information. Bishop G. P. Bahnam, in Nafahat al-Khuzam, 2 has given us abun- dant information on the life of Patriarch Barsoum. Born on June 15, 1887, in Mosul, Iraq, Barsoum re- ceived his early education in a private Dominican school, studying French and Turkish as well as religious litera- ture and history; later he learned Arabic under the training of Muslim scholars. At the Zafaran Monastery in Mardin, Turkey, where he started his theological training in 1905, he gave himself to the study of the Syriac language and literature. After his ordination as a priest in 1908, he remained at the monastery to teach, and in 191 1 he assumed the additional responsibility of managing the monastery press. Later in that year he began a scientific journey to all the monasteries and churches of Mesopotamia and Turkey. Soon after his return in 1913 he made another similar trip to examine the Syriac manuscripts in the great libraries of Europe. On May 20, 1918, Patriarch Elias III named Barsoum bishop of Syria, and after World War I he gained national recognition not only as a man of religion, but also as a man of learning. He championed the cause of Syrian unity, winning firm popular support by his admo- nition to the French to regard themselves as liberators rather than conquerors. In 1919, he was chosen to represent the national rights of the Syrian community in the peace settlement at Paris. He was disillusioned however, by the atmosphere of self-interest which pre- vailed among the delegates represen ting theEuropean powers, and at one stage of the conference found himself defending not only the rights of the Syrians, but those of the Arab nations. Though Barsoum did not succeed in protecting the Syrians’ interests at Paris, the journey yet gave him ample opportunity for further study of Syriac literature before his return in May, 1920. Two years later, the League of Nations’ action making Syria a French mandate brought him the new responsi- bility of providing for refugees from Cilicia, and he also undertook the building of many new churches in and near Aleppo. vii History of Syriac Literature and Sciences Another journey took Barsoum to Geneva and Lausanne as an apostolic delegate to the World Confer- ence on Faith and Order (August 3-21, 1927). Soon afterwards he came as an emissary of the Patriarch to the United States, where he investigated the condition of the Syrian Orthodox Church, consecrated three new churches, and ordained new priests. He also gave lec- tures on the Syriac language and literature at Provi- dence University and the University of Chicago, and served at the Oriental Institute of the latter institution until his return in 1929. After the death of Patriarch Elias III in 1932, the Synod of Bishops named Barsoum his acting successor. On January 30, 1933, he was formally elected Patriarch of Antioch, assuming the ecclesiastical name of Mar Ignatius Aphram I Barsoum. The new Patriarch quickly showed himself an active Church head, establishing new dioceses and founding a theological seminary at Zahla, Lebanon (later moved to Mosul, and then to Beirut), and served as its leader until his death on June 23, 1957. Despite the numerous responsibilities of his work in the Church and frequent interruptions for travel, Barsoum devoted much of his time to writing. Chief among his published works are the following: 1) treatise refuting al-Zahra al-Dhakiyya ft al- Balriyarkiyya al-Suryaniyya al-Antakiyya, written by Ishaq Armala in 1909. After this refutation appeared in 1910, Armala apparently replied, for Barsoum published an- other refutation in 1912. 2 ) Kitab al-Tuhfa al-Ruhiyya fi al-Salat al-Fardiyya ( “The Golden Key of the Obligatory Prayers”), 1911. 3) al-Zahra al-Qudsiyya fi al-Talim al-Masihi (“The Divine Flower of the Christian Catechism”), 1912. 4) Nuzhal al-Adhhan fi Tarikh Dayr al-Zafaran (“The Excursion of the Mind in the History of Zafaran”), 1912. 5) a translation of Tahdhib al-Akhlaq (“The Training of Characters”), by Yahya Ibn Adi, published in Journal of Semitic Languages and Literature, 1928. 6) an edition of Bar Hebraeus’ Risala fi Ilm al-Nafs al- Insaniyya (“A Treatise on the Human Soul”), 1938. 7) a translation of Bar Hebraeus’ Kitab Hadith al- Hikma (“The Speech of Wisdom”), 1940. 8) al-Durar al-Nafisa fi Mukhtasar Tarikh al-Kanisa (“The Precious Pearls of the Compendious History of the Church”), 1940. 9) al-Lulu al-Manthur (“The Unstrung Pearls”), 1943. 10) al-Alfaz al-Suryaniyya fi al-Maajim al-Arabiyya (“Syriac Words in the Arabic Lexicons”), 1951. 1 1 ) Qithar al-Qulub ( “The Harp of the Hearts”) , a volume of collected poems, published in 1954. Patriarch Barsoum produced many otherworkswhich have never been published. His Syriac-Arabic lexicon and his compendium of church history in the 20th century are written in both Syriac and Arabic. His history ofTur Abdin, in Syriac, has been translated into Arabic by Bishop Bahnam. In Arabic, he also wrote a history of the Patriarchs of Antioch and the famous men of the Syrian Church; a history of Syrian dioceses; an index of Syriac manuscripts; and translations of ten liturgies of the Syrian Church. Also, he translated into Arabic the second part of the Ecclesiastical History of Bar Hebraeus in 1909 when he was a monk at the Monastery of Zafaran. The unique copy of this translation is now in the possession of this editor. Al-Lulu al-Manthur was not, then, the solitary work of an unlearned Eastern Patriarch, but part of the consid- erable output of a man thoroughly conversant with his subject. What purpose did Barsoum have in writing this book? We may begin to answer this question by consid- ering its title. The French title, Histoire des Sciences et de la Litterature Syriaque, misleadingly suggests that the book resembles the Western studies of Syriac literature. We should prefer the Arabic Title, Kitab al-Lulu al-Manthur fi Tarikh al-Ulum wal-Adab al-Suryaniyya (“The Unstrung Pearls of the History of Syriac Sciences and Literature”) , which implies metaphorically that the work aims to present information which lies outside the scope of Western studies. The Introduction, written not only in Arabic but also in French and Syriac, indicates more exactly the nature of the work. Barsoum states that he hopes to fill the existing gaps in the knowledge of Syriac literature, and to pay tribute to the language of his church. He notes that at the beginning of the present century there commenced a revival of interest in the history of science and literature, but adds that “Aramaean science and literature” have received insufficient treat- ment from Western writers. Duval, Wright, Baumstark, and Chabot, he says, have devoted their attention to what they recognize as “science and literature” in the general sense (but, it is implied, they have passed over the extensive body of sacred literature in Syriac). Also, Barsoum notes, of these writers only Baumstark gives any consideration to Syriac literature after the end of the thirteenth century. Barsoum proposes to treat here several subjects omitted by earlier writers, including calligraphy, versification, the rites of the Church, geo- graphical sketches of Syrian cities, historical documents, the history of Syriac literature since 1290, and works and manuscripts previously unknown. In another chapter he summarizes the works of those Orientalists who have preserved Syrian culture and criticizes writers who have sought to lessen the influence of the Syrians’ knowl- edge. The immediate audience for which Barsoum writes includes two groups: historiographers and philologists seeking further knowledge of Syriac literature, and the faithful members of the Syrian Church, whose national feeling he hopes “may be reinvigorated in their ances- tral spirit.” Additional evidence of the restricted audi- ence to which the book appeals lies in the assertion that vui History of Syriac Literature and Sciences it “treats only Western Syrian scholars and writers to the exclusion of the Eastern Syrians (Nestorians) and what is known of the meager culture of the Malkites and the Maronites.” For Barsoum, the prospect of a fruitful and beneficial “social result,” the resurrection of the cul- tural heritage of the Syriac-speaking community, is full recompense for the difficulties and material expenses of preparing this work, which represents the “fruit of our untiring labor over a period covering nearly a third of a century of our episcopal and patriarchal life.” Structurally, the book is divided into three distinct sections. The first, containing thirty-one chapters, con- cerns the religious literature and other related writings extant in Syriac. After introductory chapters on the Syriac language and literature, and expositions on Syr- ian centers of learning and libraries, Barsoum treats in detail the Christian literature which has survived, in- cluding liturgies, the books of rituals used in the Church, and the lives of great men of the Church. The second part presents biographies of 293 prominent Syrian writers; fifty-six of these have not been previously cited by Western writers. In the third part are appendices giving the names of Syrian calligraphers, meanings of foreign terms in the book, geographical names, lists of monasteries, an index of biographical references, and lists of saints. Judged in terms of its author’s stated purpose, al- Lulu al-Manthur must be considered highly successful. In fact, it was received enthusiastically not only by the members of the Syriac-speaking community for whom it was written, but also by Roman Catholic and Muslim scholars. Viscount Philip de Tarrazi, a Roman Catholic writer, offered this judgment: Al-Lulu al-Manthuris indeed a very valuable work which deserves respectand consideration. Its learned author has enumerated the compositions of the famous writers and scientists from ancient times down to the present, in greater detail than any author before his time. His opening chapters dem- onstrate his thorough knowledge of his subject and his precision.... he has filled a great gap in the history of our literature and sciences, which have adorned the Christian East for many centuries... 5 The widespread appeal of al-Lulu al-Manthur to East- ern readers may readily be understood, for in approach and method it closely resembles other Eastern scholarly works on similar subjects. Especially, we may compare the work of Barsoum with Jurji Zaydan’s four-volume Kitab Tarikh Adab al-Lugha al-Arabiyya (The History of Arabic Literature”: Cairo, 1911), and K. L. Istaijian’s Tarikh al-Thaqafa wal-Adab al-Armani ( “History of Arme- nian Culture and Literature”: Mosul, 1954). Zaydan, observing that no Eastern writer before him has undertaken such a task, seeks to relate the Arabs’ literature to their political history; to depict the growth and decline of their sciences; to give biographies of the leading figures of Arabic sciences and literature, to- gether with pertinent bibliographical material; and to categorize the books extantin Arabic according to their subjects. While Zaydan presents his material largely within a chronological framework, Barsoum focuses on the types of Syriac literature, particularly compositions of religious character. Yet both works draw extensively on biographical material, and both are primarily ency- clopedic in nature, though Zaydan’s is wider in scope. In general, Zaydan’s straightforward style is more fluent than that of Barsoum, whose syntax is sometimes in- volved, and whose language is often metaphorical. Istarjian seems in his history of Armenian literature to have a purpose rather like that expressed by Barsoum in the Introduction to al-Lulu al-Manthur. Like Barsoum, Istarjian is intensely proud of the cultural traditions of his people. The periods which the two men cover are nearly identical, bu twhile Barsoum limits his discussion to religious literature, Istaijian also deals with secular literature, approaching his subject through a consider- ation of literary genres. Istaijian too, however, is con- cerned primarily with presenting biographical mate- rial, and his work, like al-Lulu al-Manthur, is factual rather than analytical. Thus, the work of Patriarch Barsoum is wholly consis- tent with the prevailing tradition of Eastern scholar- ship. This is not to say, however, that Eastern scholars concern themselves solely with the accumulation of factual evidence. Indeed, an excellent contemporary work by Anis al-Maqdisi, al-Iltijahat al-Adabiyya ft al-Alam al-Arabi al-Hadith (“Literary Trends in the Modern Arab World”: Beirut, 1963), shows their growing interest in interpretive literary scholarship. Al-Maqdisi discusses the Arabic literature of the twentieth century not in terms of its types, but in terms of its political, social, and aesthetic significance. From a Western viewpoint, it may be argued that Barsoum writes in an unscholarly 'man- ner. Perhaps we can more readily comprehend the merits and defects of his work by comparing it with that of Rubens Duval, La IJtterature Syriaque. Duval provides a historical account of the origins, development, and decline of Syriac literature, and adds brief biographical sketches of the leading Syrian writers. He takes his account only to the end of the thirteenth century, while Barsoum offers much information on the writers from that time to the present. Duval, by adopting a chrono- logical approach, and by considering within the scope of his work the literary activity of both Eastern and Western Syrians, succeeds more fully in placing Syriac literature in its historical context. Neither writer at- tempts genuine criticism of Syriac literature; Duval turns his attention to its subjects and external forms, while Barsoum enumerates but does not evaluate the works of Syrian writers. Finally, we may note, Duval quotes at length, but carefully, from the work of earlier scholars; Barsoum too frequently presents evidence IX History of Syriac Literature and Sciences without identifying its source. Thus, it is clear that the Western reader must accept al-Lulu al-Manthur on its own terms, as the work of an Eastern scholar writing for an Eastern audience. He must also bear in mind that Barsoum is the Patriarch of Antioch, the head of the Syrian Church, and that his dominant attitude is one of pride in the literary achieve- ments of the Church Fathers; indeed, this must be his attitude if he is to fulfill his purpose. To be sure, this pride often leads to undue exaggera- tion, particularly of the ancientness of the Syrians’ language and the greatness of their literature. Barsoum does not document convincingly his identification of Syriac with Aramaic, nor does he furnish sufficient proof that Christ and the Apostles spoke Syriac. His dogmatic assertion that Syriac literature rivals that of the Greeks seems all the more unpalatable because it is made without reference to any clear standard of judg- ment One finds it difficult to accept the statement t£iat the Syriac books now extant are the oldestin the world, and impossible to believe that the library of the monas- tery of the Syrians in Egypt is the most ancient in the world. In other instances Barsoum gives us good reason to call into question his reliability both as a scholar and as ajudge of literature. His declaration that the Pshitto was produced by Christianizedjews in the first century, for example, may be sound, but surely needs substantia- tion. In his discussion of early Syriac literature, he quite erroneously assigns the composition of the Book of Tobit to the fifth century B.C., and again offers no evidence to support his contention. He praises St. Ephraim at the expense of other importantwriters such as Bar Daysan and Aphrahat. His treatment of the main themes of Syriac poetry is somewhat marred by his vague definition of satire. Finally, by centering his discussion largely upon the Christian literature which the Syrians produced, Barsoum minimizes the impor- tance of their role as translators. Despite these faults, the work of Patriarch Barsoum has significant value for students of Syriac literature. Unlike his Western predecessors, he does not depend heavily on the work of Assemani, but draws much information from the Syriac manuscripts surviving in churches and monasteries throughout the Middle East, and from other original sources. The wider range of first-hand material available to Barsoum generally does not lead him to conclusions at odds with those drawn by Western scholars, but frequendy enriches his presenta- tion of factual information. Wright, for example, in his biographical sketch of Bar Hebraeus, cites only the Bibliotheca Orientalis and Bar Hebraeus’ own writings; Barsoum furnishes additional evidence from the metri- cal biography of Bar Hebraeus and his brother, by Gabriel of Bartulli. The chief significance of al-Lulu al-Manthur, how- ever, lies not in its additions to our knowledge concern- ing major figures in Syriac literature, but in its treat- ment of topics which Western writers have not consid- ered. Barsoum has given us here a diorough and illumi- nating exposition of the art of calligraphy. His discus- sion of the rites of the Church takes us into an area which has not been explored in other studies of Syriac literature. The consideration of the various types of church music gives us an all too brief insight into what may quite properly be regarded as one of the highest forms of literary expression sought by the Syrians. This part of the work is clearly derived in part from ancient sources, about which Barsoum is unfortunately not explicit. The informative discussion of Syriac liturgies appears to be original rather than derivative; Barsoum indicates in this section that he has read both Renaudot and Michael the Great, but because of his life in the Church he is thoroughly familiar with the practice of the liturgy, and in fact has even read seventy four of these liturgies himself. His catalogue of liturgies is far more extensive than any compiled by Western scholars; to Philoxenus of Mabug, for example, he attributes certainly two liturgies, and tentatively another, whereas Wright 4 cites only one, and that on the authority of Renaudot and Assemani. The second part of the book, comprising biogra- phies of Syrian writers, should be of great historical and literary importance to both general readers and Syrian scholars. Many of these biographies, particularly those covering the period after the tenth century A.D., are little known to Western scholars, and even those known to scholars have not been put in proper historical perspective. These biographies contain much indis- pensable information for writers concerned with the history of the Syrian Church during this period. Because of his ecclesiastical position, the author had exceptional opportunities to gather important and hith- erto little known information for these biographies from various Syriac prayer books, lectionaries, liturgical books, and Gospels in Syrian churches throughout the East, particularly in Tur Abdin. He was also able to discover manuscripts unknown to other Orientalists, who were compelled to rely on those available in West- ern libraries. In 1927, for example, F. S. Marsh trans- lated and published The Book of the Holy Hierotheos from three manuscripts, two in the British Museum and one in the Houghton Library at Harvard University. But he wasunaware of another copy in the Monastery of Zafaran, MS. 213, which Barsoum tells us includes Patriarch Theodosius’ detailed commentary on the text. Moreover, Barsoum’s profound knowledge of and feeling for the Syriac language placed him in a supreme position to judge the lapses and prejudicial observa- tions of some Orientalists against the Syrian Church and its learned men. Yet he freely gave his opinions and judgments regarding Syriac literature and sciences to scholars who sought them , and he must be commended for the invaluable assistance he rendered many Western x History of Syriac Literature and Sciences scholars, among them J. B. Chabot, in locating, photo- graphing, and providing Syriac texts of manuscripts. The reader’s attention should be drawn to some editorial revisions and reorganizations made in the original text The errata which the author appended at the end of Part One have been corrected in the transla- tion. The section on the Diatessaron has been moved from the end of the book to its proper place as Chapter Eleven (hence the difference in the numbering of chapters between the original text and the translation). Similarly the biography of Dionysius Saliba, bishop of Claudia, has been moved to its proper place in PartTwo (hence the difference in the numbering of biogra- phies) . This editor has deleted names of Orientalists at the end of Section One of the-Epilogue, as these have no significance to the text. Likewise, the list of foreign words and usages comprising Section Four of the Epi- logue has been deleted, because these terms have been translated and explained as they occurred throughout the text. In Section Five of the Epilogue, this editor has placed in separate lists geographical names, followed by the names of monasteries; in the original text these were commingled in a single list. The reader should be informed that the manuscripts cited by Barsoum as MSS. Boston are now at the Houghton Library of Harvard University. He should also note that when the author refers to manuscripts deposited at “Our Library,” he means the Patriarchal Library, which in his lifetime was located at Hims, but which is now at Damascus, the seat of the present Patriarch. Finally, in the biographical section, some of the dates cited by the author after the names of Syrian learned men signify not the year of their death, but some outstanding deed by the individual mentioned, or perhaps merely the fact that he was still living in that year. The late Mar Philoxenus Yuhanna (John) Dolabani, bishop of Mardin and its environs (d. November 2, 1969), published a Syriac translation of al-Lulu al- Manthur (Qamishli, Syria: 1967). To this translation Bishop Dolabani added a few new biographies, and he included new information in some of the biographies written by Barsoum. But there is little in Bishop Dolabani’s translation which merits inclusion here. Western writers seem accustomed to remark dispar- agingly that the Syrians devoted themselves largely to the writing of Christian literature, and to pass over this literature rather quickly; as a consequence, their view of Syriac literature is incomplete. Yet it is equally true that al-Lulu al-Manthur, on account of its preoccupation with the Christian writings, gives an inaccurate view of the whole of Syriac literature. Those who wish general knowledge of the Syriac language and literature will no doubt profit most from the treatments of these subjects by Duval and Baumstark. Those who seek more detailed information will find the work of Patriarch Barsoum of immeasurable importance. The book should be of great interest to students of Syriac literature and of common readers interested in the history of the Syrian Church and its religious and literary traditions. Furthermore, it contains informa- tion about the interaction of the early Arab Muslims with their subjects the Syrian Christians and the role these Syrians played in transmitting Greek philosophy to the Arabs. Of great significance to the students of peripatetic philosophy is the importance the Syrians placed on the works of Aristotle. Indeed, without Syrian translators the Muslims would not have known Aristotle whom they reverently described as the First Master. The present work would not have been possible without the invaluable assistance of my colleague and friend Professor George Welch, Jr. for correcting the manuscript and offering many suggestions concerning Latin and Greek terms used in the text, and to the late eminent Orientalist Professor D. M. Dunlop (d. 1987) of Columba University, for reading the first part of the book, which was presented to him as part of the editor's doctoral dissertation. I would like also to thank Abd al- Ahad Hannawi for typing the final copy of the manu- script, andjohn Eulaiano, Inter-Libray Loan Coordina- tor of the Library of Gannon University, for his indefati- gable effort and patience in locating the names of Western writers and the tides of their works on Syriac literature. I should mention with gratitude the effort and patience of my late sister Fadila Moosa, a grammar- ian and philologist, who helped in explaining the in- trinsic meaning of many involved Arabic passages in the original text. The editor also appreciates the great interest of Don Herdeck in this book and in producing it in its final form. He also commends Dr. Admer Gouryh for his incentive in pressing forward the publi- cation of this book, and Hanna Isa for his assistance. Finally, the editor would like to thank the dignitaries and foundations for their support. Of these it is worthy to men tion Archbishop Mar Cyril Aphrem Karim, Head of the Syrian Orthodox Archdiocese of the Eastern United States, The American Foundation for Syriac Studies, Samir, Lyla and Gabriel Shirazi of the Shirazi Foundation, Archbishop Yeshu Samuel Trust Fund, The Very Rev. Numan Aydin, Mr. Sulayman Abd al- Nur, Mr. Said Samuel and the editor’s sister Adeeba Moosa. Last but not least, the editor is indebted to his wife for her exemplary patience and understanding during the whole process of translating and preparing this book for the press. xx Author's Preface Praise be to God, who has adorned the intellect of man with the crown of knowledge, and embellished his speech with the charm of eloquence. The dawn of our epoch was ushered by the appearance of interesting works dealing with the history of sciences and litera- tures in various languages. The field of knowledge extended far and wide before the knights (stalwart champions) of eloquence, who went forth on their valiant adventures, each setting his eyes upon his par- ticular goal. While some achieved their objective, oth- ers continued the search. Thus, they helped to re- awaken the spirits and rouse the minds from the state of slumber and lethargy that had enveloped them for far too long a time. Presently, the noble souls were eagerly seeking the pure springs of knowledge, and the lumi- nous minds were setting with determination for the rich realms of literature. Since Western scholars had drawn only an incom- plete picture of Syriac Sciences and Literature, these seemed, by the very nature of their (sad) state, to be calling for a fair historical exposition, in the Arabic language, that would give them the publicity they de- served in the Eastern world, and reveal their merits to all those endowed with sound reason and understanding. Therefore, we undertook to compile this detailed work, which covers eighteen centuries of the history of Syriac Sciences and Literature. It took more than thirty years to carry out the exten- sive research needed for this study; the necessary mate- rial was sought in the most likely and unlikely sources, the bulk of them being manuscripts scattered by the vicissitudes of fate all over the world (in the four corners of the world) and, apart from scanty references to them in historical works, all but neglected by scholars and compilers. If we leave aside the biographies of thirty famous scholars and prominent ascetics, we find that the Syr- ians, unlike the Arabs, left no work dealing with the history of their learned men either in outline or in detail. During the period in question, all the time we could spare from our episcopal and patriarchal work was devoted to this task, until God Almighty (may he be exalted) helped us achieve this task. We were undeterred by the great pains and the assiduous efforts we had to exert by day and by night, or by the substantial sums of money we voluntarily contrib- uted for this purpose. Nay, all this was a cause of pleasure and delight. We were only trying to give their due to worthy ancestors who had crowned our nation and our language with laurels of splendor; who had left for us, both in the Eastand West, an immortal name and a noble glory; and who had enriched our minds with true knowledge, thereby bestowing upon us the gift of fluent speech and clear expression. Meanwhile, we propose to spread out before the scholars and students of the East and West a (sumptuous) table on which we hope they will find what should delight the heart and give satisfaction to the mind. We also hope that this work will help to fill a gap in the history of an (impor- tant) Semitic language that has long clothed the Chris- tian East with a beautiful garment, rendering to it such services as had been gratefully recognized by all fair- minded scholars, who well know thatits sister languages vainly seek to (rival) the sweetness of its fruits. To accomplish our task, we have had to make exten- sive travels. In addition to Mosul and its surrounding villages, we have visited the Monastery of St. Matthew (Dayr Mar Matta) ; Jazirat ibn Umar; Tur Abdin (with its forty five localities rich in Syriac lore, especially Basibrina, Mardin and its villages, al-Zafaran Monastery, Diyarbakr and its villages, and Wayranshahr; al-Ruha (Edessa); Aleppo, Hama, Hims and their villages; Damascus and Beirut; as well as the Monastery of St. Mark and the Armenian and Greek Monasteries in Jerusalem. We have also made various trips to Egypt, and Constantinople, London, Oxford, Cambridge, Birming- ham, Paris, Florence, Rome, Berlin, New York and Boston. We have consulted several manuscripts found in private collections and, for a period of time, worked on compiling extensive catalogues of our more famous Syriac libraries. As for (the collections of) the Monas- tery of St. Cyriacus, Beshayriyya, Kharput, Hisn Mansur, Swayrik, Seert, Sharwan, Gharzan, Mount Sinai, and the Library of the Coptic Patriarchate in Cairo, we were helped to have access to them through the good offices of certain high-minded clerics, to all of whom we now express our deepest gratitude. We have also consulted the printed catalogues of Eastern and Western Syriac libraries. Apart from the Holy Scriptures, we have examined some two hundred different volumes, covering a wide range of arts and sciences. Thus, no work is described or criticized here without having been the subject of the closest scrutiny, with the exception of a few rare in- stances. In fact, we have had access to all the known locations of Syriac documents. Among other works, we have consulted the Bibliotheca Orientalis of Assemani, the four histories - some fairly comprehensive, some brief - of William Wright (in English), Rubens Duval (in French), A. Baumstark (in German), and J. B. Chabot (1894-1938) (in French). While the best of these works is Duval’s, Baumstark’s is Xll History of Syriac Literature and Sciences more thorough and richer in reference material. The main objective of these authors is to acquaint the com- munity of Orientalists with the source-references of Syriac literature which, according to their conception, includes sciences and literature in general. They are less adequate in their description and critique of the creativ- ity of the Syriac intellect Besides, they all carry their studies, which cover both the Western and Eastern (Schools) of Syriac Literature, no further than the thirteenth century, with the exception of Baumstark, who makes a few references to more modem writers as well as to a number of Malkite and Maronite manu- scripts. The present work is confined to discussing our West- ern Syrian men of letters and scholars, to the exclusion of the Eastern (followers of the Eastern rite, i.e., the Nestorians) and the meager literary output of the Malkites and Maronites. You will find in this book some of the subjects and studies overlooked by the above-mentioned historians of literature, including calligraphy, verse, ecclesiastical rites with all their characteristic diversity and complex- ity. Itreviews the history of literature from 1 290 until the present time, and gives brief geographical accounts of all the localities cited, as well as precise historical infor- mation on seventy-two monasteries. In addition, it con- tains lists of schools, ancient Syriac libraries (book collections) , physicians, authors of liturgies and Sedras (Husoyos) , calligraphers, as well as a number of lost (unknown) manuscripts, and various useful items of historical information. An attempt is made to rectify a number of errors thoughtlessly copied from each other by contemporary writers, while making sure to remain throughout, within the strict bounds of judicious criticism. In a separate chapter, the reader will find a summary of the work done by distinguished orientalists who have rendered valuable services to Syriac Studies. Some of them, however, are taken to task for a pitiful lack of moderation and propagandists prejudices contrary to the scientific spirit and the worth of scientific achieve- ment The book is published under the title, Al-Lulu al- Manthur fi Tarikh al-Ulum wa-Adab al-Suryaniyya. May it find acceptance in the eyes of God Almighty as a service to science and to the seekers after knowledge; surely God is a sufficient Guide and Helper. At our Patriarchate in Hims, Syria, 14 February, 1943 A.D. corresponding to the 11th year of our Patriarchate, and the anniversary of our Episcopal Silver Jubilee. xiii Contents Author’ s Dedication v Translator’s Dedication v Translator’s Introduction vii Author’s Preface xii PART I: On Syriac Sciences and Literature CHAPTER ONE The Syriac Language 1 CHAPTER TWO The General Characteristics of Syriac Literature 1 CHAPTER THREE The Centers of Learning 2 CHAPTER FOUR Syrian Libraries 3 CHAPTER FIVE Syriac Calligraphy 5 CHAPTER SIX Morphology and Grammar 7 CHAPTER SEVEN General Rules of the Language and Dictionaries; 8 Rhetoric and Poetry 8 CHAPTER EIGHT Themes of Syriac Poetry 9 CHAPTER NINE Categories of Syrian Poets 10 CHAPTER TEN Versions of The Holy Bible 12 CHAPTER ELEVEN The Diatessaron 12 XV History of Syriac Literature and Sciences CHAPTER TWELVE Syriac Orthography 13 CHAPTER THIRTEEN Commentaries On The Old and New Testaments 14 CHAPTER FOURTEEN Apocryphal Writings 15 CHAPTER FIFTEEN Semi-Apocryphal Literature 16 CHAPTER SIXTEEN Church Rituals 16 Church Music 17 The Regular Weekday Service Book 17 Lectionaries 18 Liturgical Books 19 Service Books For Sundays For The Whole Year 22 The Service Book of Principal Feasts and 23 The Festivals of Saints 23 Service Books of The Lent and Passion Week 24 Husoys (Propitiatory Prayers) For Sundays, Feasts, Lent and Passion Week, and Other Occasions 24 The Orders of Baptism, The Benediction of Marriage, The Holy Unction and of Repentence 27 Order of The Offices of Ordination and The Administration of Sacraments by The Clergy 27 Service Book For Principal Feasts 28 Funeral Service Books 29 Choral Books 30 Prayer Books of Priests and Monks 32 The Book of Life 32 Calendar of Festivals For The Whole Year 32 The Oldest Manuscript on Which We Depended in Our Research 34 I. TheFanqiths 34 I I. The Husoyos ( Propitiatory Prayers) 36 III. Baptism, the Benediction of Marriage, Prayers for the Sick, and Repentance 38 TV. The Office of Ordination 39 V. Service Books of Hymns For Principal Feasts 40 VI. Funeral Services 40 VII Madrashes and Maaniths 41 VIII. The Beth Gaz ( Treasure of Melodies) 42 CHAPTER SEVENTEEN Theology 44 CHAPTER EIGHTEEN The Pseudo-Work of Dionysius The Areopagite 44 CHAPTER NINETEEN Ecclesiastical Apologetics 47 xvi History of Syriac Literature and Sciences CHAPTER TWENTY Ecclesisastical Jurisprudence and Civil Law 47 CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE Ascetic Books 48 CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO Books of General History 50 CHAPTER TWENTY-THREE Private History 52 CHAPTER TWENTY-FOUR Diverse Historical Tracts 53 CHAPTER TWENTY-FIVE The Lives of Martyrs and Saints 55 The Lives of the Martyrs ofEdessa, Samosata and Persia 56 Life-Stories of The Martyrs of Palestine, Mesopotamia, Armenia, Byzantium, Egypt and Yemen 57 The Life-Stories of The Holy Apostles, Patriarchs and Bishops 58 The Life-Stories of Ascetics, Anchorites and Others 59 CHAPTER TWENTY-SIX On Story Writing 61 CHAPTER TWENTY-SEVEN Philosophy 61 SECTION ONE The Philosophical Writings of The Syrians in General 62 SECTION TWO The Influence of Aristotelian Philosophy on The Syrians 62 SECTION THREE Other Syriac Translations From Greek 63 CHAPTER TWENTY-EIGHT The Science of Medicine 64 CHAPTER TWENTY-NINE On Natural Science 65 CHAPTER THIRTY The Science of Astronomy (Al-Haya, The Form, i.e., of The Heavens); Geography, Mathematics and Chemistry 65 CHAPTER THIRTY-ONE The Translation of Foreign Works 66 SECTION ONE The Translated Works Until 400 A.D 67 SECTION TWO The Translations Until The Year 451 69 SECTION THREE The Rest of The Translated Writings From The Year 451 and After 71 SECTION FOUR Translations of Greek Writings of Orthodox Origin Not Known to Us 72 XVII History of Syriac Literature and Sciences PART TWO: Biographies of Syrian Scholars and Writers Foreword 75 Table of Concise Biographies of Scholars Divided Into Three Periods 75 THE FIRST PERIOD: B.C. to 758 A.D 75 THE SECOND PERIOD: 773 - 1286 75 THE THIRD PERIOD: 1290-1931 76 CHAPTER ONE Biographies of Scholars and Writers of the First Period 76 CHAPTER TWO Biographies of Scholars and Writers of the Second Period 121 CHAPTER THREE Biographies of Learned Men and Writers of the Third Period 1290-1931 159 Epilogue in Five Parts Part I: On Orientalists and Oriental Writers who Published Syriac Books „ 173 Part II: On The Incoherence of Some Orientalists and Their False Charges Against Our Learned Men and Their Refutation 173 Section III: A Table of Famous Calligraphers 177 The Fifth Century 177 The Sixth Century 177 The Seventh Century 177 The Eighth Century 177 The Ninth Century 177 The Tenth Century 177 The Eleventh Century 178 The Twelfth Century 178 The Thirteenth Century 179 The Fourteenth Century 179 The Fifteenth Century 180 The Sixteenth Century 181 The Seventeenth Century 181 The Eighteenth Century 181 The Nineteenth Century 181 Section V : Geographical Names 183 Monasteries 187 Notes 191 Index 237 Bibliography 000 xviii PARTI On Syriac Sciences and Literature CHAPTER ONE The Syriac Language The Aramaic (Syriac) language is one of the Semitic tongues in which parts of the Holy Bible, such as the Prophecy of Daniel and the Gospel according to St. Matthew, were revealed. 1 Some scholars consider it the most ancient of the languages of the world; even the more moderate ones consider it one of the oldest. 2 The first established evidence of its ancient use is the passage in Genesis 37:47 about 1750 B.C. 3 The Syriac language consists of twenty-two letters, six of which have double sounds, hard and soft, 4 which according to our termi- nology, are identified by certain signs. Syriac is a graceful and rich language. It is adequate for the expression of ideas and portrayal of feelings, besides the comprehension of all types of ancient knowl- edge. Syriac was the vernacular of the inhabitants of Iraq, thejazira of Mesopotamia and Syria. It penetrated into inner Persia and spread among the peoples neighbouring the Syrians. 5 For many years it remained the official language of the states which occupied the Near East. It also extended to Egypt, Asia Minor and northern Arabia, 6 and reached southern China and the Malabar coast in India, where it is still used. It was still widely spoken until rivalled by Arabic at the end of the eighth and the beginning of the ninth century, atwhich time it retreated from the towns and found refuge in the villages and mountains. Itwas, nevertheless, still used by writers and scholars. The homeland of the classical Syriac included al- Ruha (Edessa), Harran, Hims, Apamea and the rest of the country of al-Sham. 7 The Sabeans of Harran used it in their writings until the end of the ninth century. 8 The language also remained in this high state in many parts of thejazira and Armenia until the end of the thirteenth century, and in some other places until the fifteenth century. This language may rightfully be considered superior to other languages of the world, as it was the spoken language of Our Lord Jesus Christ and his Holy Apostles. Itwas the first language in which the Christian Church celebrated the liturgy. Furthermore, the Syr- ians had great excellence in translating Greek writings into Syriac and in turn into Arabic. It has also become our ritual language to this day and, to a small extent, the means of communication among our clergy. At the beginning of the sixth century A.D. Syriac was divided according to its pronunciation and script into two dialects, known as the Western and the Eastern “traditions”. Each of these traditions was attributed to the homeland of the people who spoke it, i.e., Western for those who inhabited al-Sham, and Eastern for those living in Mesopotamia, Iraq and Azerbayjan. However, the Syrian Orthodox community in Iraq is excluded from the Eastern part. The most important writings in this language which reached us are the Old Testament and the New Testa- ment in the Pshitto translation. If we except some of the changes in the dialects into which it was subdivided, Syriac did not undergo change after it became settled. The Old Testament passages in this language and what remains of the poetry of the philosopher “Wafa” indi- cate that this language is the same that we use today. However, some of its terminology was forgotten through time and became unattractive to some, as observed by Anton of Takrit. 9 On the other hand, others were lost through negligence, but were preserved in Arabic, as has been asserted by Jacob of Bartulli. 10 Syriac had neither grammar nor philological books, because the native Syrians spoke it with instinctive eloquence as the Arabs spoke their tongue. The first grammatical rules for Syriac were set at the end of the seventh century, as shall be seen later. CHAPTER TWO The General Characteristics of Syriac Literature In the beginning, the Syrian-Aramaeans had a re- fined language adorned with literature comprising both prose and poetry. They were also concerned with the sciences. However, nothing of their literary works has reached us except the book of Ahiqar, the Minister of Sennacherib, King of Assyria, 681 B.C. This book, to which many other tales were added later, contains counsel and wisdom. 1 It is presumed that the book of Ahiqar was composed either at this time or about the fifth century B.C., when the book ofTobiyya (Tobit) was 1 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences written. 2 There survived also a few lines of poetry by Wafa, the Aramaean philosopher and poet who lived long before the Christian era, together with a few legends inscribed on the tombs of some of the Abgarite kings of Edessa. To these should be added the fine and edifying letter of the philosopher Mara bar Saraphion to his son, written in the middle of the second century A.D. However, these surviving sources are too insignifi- cant to be taken as a basis for evaluating pre-Christian Syriac literature. The Syriac literature known to us, therefore, is of Christian and ecclesiastical origin. It is the intellectual product of Christian clerical authors and learned men. When embracing Christianity, our forefathers, inflamed by their ardent zeal for the new faith, burned all books and destroyed every trace of pagan scholarly works, lest they entice their posterity back into the snares of hea- thenism. When most of their progeny embraced Chris- tianity in the first and second centuries; followed by the rest at the close of the fourth century and the beginning of the fifth, they pursued the path of their forefathers in their love for learning. They mastered the art of litera- ture and produced magnificent literary masterpieces. The Syrian scholars exerted their efforts in translat- ing, punctuating and commenting on the Holy Bible. They concentrated their attention on the philological sciencessuch as morphology, grammar, rhetoric, speech and poetry. They also pursued logic, philosophy, natu- ral science, mathematics, astronomy, geodesy and medi- cine. They immersed themselves deeply in theoretical theology, ethics, and ecclesiastical and civil jurispru- dence. They dealt at great length with civil and religious history and church music and touched also upon geog- raphy and the art of storytelling. In general, they cov- ered the commonly known fields of human learning without exception. Among the Syrians flourished many savants and scholars who carried the torches of knowledge to the utmost parts of the Eastern world. They surpassed the learned men of most Christian nations in number as well as in output; their fame, as we shall see later, spread east and west. The Greek literary works, despite their abundance, excellence and precedence, and despite their being a model for Syriac and Latin literature, nevertheless, taken as a whole, did not excel over Syriac literature in its entirety. Despite the disparity between the Coptic, Armenian, Christian-Arabic, Georgian and Abyssinian literatures, meticulous scholars are aware of the limitations and narrow scope of these literatures. If the Greek culture is considered philosophical and that of the Arabs rhetorical, then the culture of the Syrians is considered religious. The characteristics of the Syriac literature, there- fore, are Biblical, ritualistic, polemical, theological, historical and traditional. The Syrians’ concern with producing translations and commen taries on the Scrip ture, as well as other related writings, speaks for their excellence in preserving and spreading the Holy Scrip tures. Moreover, the books of religious services and prayers which they composed over many generations testify to their superior taste, high-mindedness and pre- eminence in the theological disputes which long en- dured among the Christian sects. Their deep penetration into the secrets of Christian- ity yielded many theological and polemical workswhich reveal their literary ability. Their histories encompassed the episodes of Christianity and the life stories of saints and martyrs, as well as the most accurate historical documents of Asia in the time of the Romans, Persians, Byzantines, Arabs, Mongolsand Turks. When the fourth century swelled with the writings of the Christian schol- ars who wrote in Greek, the school of Edessa spared no effort in translating the best of these writings into its language. The School of Edessa also initiated the teach- ing of Greek and was followed by most of our well- known schools until the end of the twelfth century. On the other hand, the Syrian scholars devoted their efforts to translating the books of philosophy and sci- ence first into Syriac and then into Arabic, thus becom- ing the teachers of the Arabs. In time matters took a different course, however, and the Greek philosophy was transmitted from the East to Europe through Arabic books of science whose influ- ence began to appear in Spain in the Middle Ages. 3 CHAPTER THREE The Centers of Learning The luminaries of Syrian culture, both the ones of the first class and those of the second, shone in the long period between the fourth century and the end of the thirteenth. The centers of learning were on the whole theological, although some of them were distinguished for the teaching of philosophy and other sciences. The most famous of these schools were the following: 1. The theological school of Edessa, which most likely was established in the middle of the third century, but flourished and became very popular in 363 A.D. through the care of Saint Ephraim, the Syrian. It was closed down in 489 A. D. after it had survived for 1 26 years. 1 2. The Monastery of Zuqnin, known as St John’s Monastery, was established in the fourth century near Diyarbakr. It became a center of learning in the middle of the same century and existed until the tenth century. It had skillful teachers on its staff. 3. Dayr al-Umr, or Qartamin, properly known as the Monastery of St. Gabriel, in Tur Abdin. It was estab- 2 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences lished in 397 and became the goal of the seekers of knowledge and asceticism from the middle of the fifth century onwards. Scholars continued graduating from it until the eleventh or twelfth century. 4. The Monastery of Ousebuna in the province of Antioch. 5. The great Monastery of Talada, near Ousebuna. These two monasteries were established in the middle of the fourth century, when they became centers of learning. They achieved more fame, however, in the last decade of the seventh century, through the excellence of Jacob of Edessa. Benjamin, metropolitan of Edessa, also taught in Talada shordy before 837 A.D. Both monasteries were still populated in the middle, or possibly the end of the tenth century. 6. the Monastery of Mar Zakka, near al-Raqqa (Callinicus), established in the fifth century. Teaching did not start there, however, until the beginning of the sixth century, and it remained until the tenth century. 7. Qinnesrin (The Eagle’s Nest) stands on the right bank of the Euphrates opposite what is now Jarabulus. Established around 530, it indulged more actively in learning than the rest of the monasteries and thus achieved a wide fame. It remained the greatest school of theology and science until the beginning of the ninth century. Then, however, it suffered a period of decline, but was soon revived until the middle of the eleventh century and was probably maintained to the middle of the thirteenth. 8. The outer Jubb Monastery (Gubba Baraya), be- tween Aleppo and Samosata, which became known in the sixth century, but achieved broader fame in the ninth century. 9. The Monastery of Mar Matta, east of Mosul, built in the mountain of Alphaph (the thousands), estab- lished in the late fourth century. Teaching did not begin in it before the third decade of the seventh century and remained until the end of the thirteenth century. 10. Al-Amud (the Pillar) Monastery, near Ras al-Ayn in aljazira, the center of study from the seventh to the ninth centuries. 11. The Monastery of Qarqafta (the Skull), between Ras al-Ayn and Hasaka near the village of Magdal, was famous for philological studies in the beginning of the ninth century. 12. The Monastery of Mar Hananya, properly known as Dayr al-Zafaran, near Mardin. Built in the last decade of the ninth century, it became the center of learning for a long time. After a period of decline, teaching was resumed there in later times, though in a primitive method. 13. The Monastery of Mar Sergius, in the Qahil (barren) mountain between Sinjar and Balad. Learn- ing is presumed to have begun in it in the eighth century; however, it became famous in the ninth cen- tury. 1 4. The Sacred Mountain of al-Ruha (Edessa) , which was crowded with monasteries from the fifth and sixth centuries onwards. Some of these monasteries existed as centers of learning up to the beginning of the thirteenth century. 15. The Monastery of Mar Barsoum, near Melitene. Built in the middle of the fifth century, it was a center of learning from the ninth century to the middle of the fourteenth. 16. The Monastery of Mar John Qurdis, in the city of Dara, a great and well-known monastery. We have its history from 800 to 1002. Among its scholars was the Metropolitan Lazarus bar Sobto. 17. The Monastery of Elijah barjaji in the province of Melitene, which was established around 960 and became a center of studies. 18. Al-Barid Monastery, in the province of Melitene and Anazete; builtin 969, it became a center of learning until 1243. The Turkomans killed fifteen of its monks, most of whom were men of learning. 19. The Monastery of Sarjisiyya, in the same prov- ince, founded about 980, when it began to breathe the perfume of knowledge. This monastery and that of al- Barid remained as centers of knowledge to the twelfth century. 20. The Cathedral of the City of Melitene, known as the Church of al-Sa’i, a center of religion and philologi- cal studies in the beginning of the eleventh century. Its importance declined at the end of the thirteenth cen- tury. 21. The Monastery of Mar Aaron al-Shaghr, in Qallisura, an ancient monastery, presumably established in the fifth century. It became a center of learning in the eleventh century; from it graduated Ignatius III, Metro- politan of Melitene. We have overlooked mentioning the patriarchal and episcopal seats, in which great numbers of the clergy were educated. , CHAPTER FOUR Syrian Libraries Following are the most famous Syrian libraries known to us: 1. The library of the Monastery of Qartamin. This library contained many books, to which mar Simon Zaytuni (d. 734) added one hundred and eighty vol- umes. 1 Following his steps, his nephew David and then John, the metropolitan of Qartamin ’s Monastery (998- 3 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences 1034), as well as his nephew, the monk Immanuel, adorned it with seventy volumes of parchments written in his own hand. In 1169 two monks, Gabriel bar Batriq and his brother Elisha, togetherwith Moses of Kafr Salt, restored two hundred and seventy volumes. 2 2. The library of Zuqnin Monastery. This contained many valuable books, as has been mentioned in the life story of Matta the ascetic. 3. The library of the Church of Amid. Mar Mari III, metropolitan of Amid, collected significant volumes which were moved to Amid after his death in 5 29. 5 4. The library of Talada’s Monastery. Some of its books are preserved in the British Museum numbering 740 books, including the selected hymns of Mar Isaac, transcribed about 570. The monks of this monastery took possession of the books ofjacob of Edessa after his death in 708. 5. The library of Mar Dawud (David) Monastery. We had two monasteries of this name, one situated south of Damascus near Busra, also called the Monastery of Hina, the second, in the city of Qinnesrin, mentioned in the second half of the sixth century. Both monasteries are mentioned in the Syriac Document# (pp. 164, 171 and 440). The library in question belongs to one of them. Among its books, it contained the book of Philalethes, by St. Severus of Antioch, finished in the time of its Abbot Daniel in the sixth or the seventh century. This work is preserved in the Vatican Library (MS. 139) . 6. The library of St John’s Monastery in Beth Zaghba, mentioned three times in the Syriac Documents (pp. 163, 171 and 182) in the time of Paul the Abbot Of its books only an old copy of the New Testament, written in 586, survives, at the Bibliotheca Laurenziana. 7. The library of St. John of Nayrab, believed to be one of the monasteries near Aleppo. One of its volumes, in the British Museum (MS. 730), contains the letters and discourses of Mar Philoxenus of Mabug; their transcription was finished in 569. 8. The library of St. Moses in al-Nabk’s mountain. British Museum MS. 585 contains the lastvolume of the writings ofjohn Chrysostom, finished in the middle of the sixth century. 9. The library of Mar Daniel in Kafrbil, in the prov- ince of Antioch; the transcription of its works, done by a priest named Musa (Moses) in 599, is preserved in the British Museum (MS 71). 1 0. The library of Mar Cyriacus near Tall al-Maqlub. Of its manuscripts only three survived, two in the British Museum (MSS. 52 and 53), transcribed in 616 and 617, and the third in the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris, MS. 72, finished in 720. 11. The library of al-Amud’s Monastery, mentioned in 638 in the Book of theMaymars (Hymns) of Marjacob ofSaruj, in the time of Abbot Simon. Its contents survive in the Vatican (MS. 251). 12. The library of the Monastery of Mar Matta. Its manuscripts were increased in the seventh century. particularly the valuable ones which gained fame around the year 800. One of these manuscripts contained the Book of the Six Days, written in 822 byjacob of Edessa, now extant at the Chaldean library in Mosul, transferred from the library at Diyarbakr. In 1 298 this library con- tained the complete writings of Bar Hebraeus, as is mentioned in the Berlin MS. 326. But it was pillaged by the Kurds in the middle of the fourteenth century. Only a portion of it remained in the middle of the sixteenth century, and its contents were again scattered in 1845; after that date it possessed only about sixty manuscripts. 13. The library of the Monastery of the Syrians in Egypt. This monastery, which became widely famous in the seventh century, harbored a library to which its Abbot Father, Moses of Nisibin (907-944), added two hundred and fifty of the most valuable books and the rarest and oldest manuscripts after his trip from Egypt to Baghdad, which took six years and ended in 932. Among those who took care of the arrangements of this library and the binding of its books was the eminently learned monk Barsoum of Marash, some time after 1084. Barsoum was still living as a priest in 1122 (cf. British Museum MS. 323, Bibliotheque Nationale, MS. 27). I have read in some commentaries that fifteen camel-loads of books were found in this monastery after the pillage of Edessa, Amid, Melitene and other cities. In 1624 the priest Tuma (Thomas) of Mardin counted the books of this Monastery, which amounted to four hundred and three volumes (cf. British Museum MS. 374). So this was the most famous of all the Syrian libraries, as well as the most ancient of the libraries of the world. 5 From the middle of the seventeenth century to the middle of the nineteenth, its books found their way into the libraries of the Vatican, Paris, Petersburg, and especially London, which was enriched by these books and so vaunted its stock of Syriac manuscripts over that of the other libraries. 6 Also, there was a library of Syriac books in the Monastery of Anba Bula, men- tioned after the time when Constantine I was the Abbot of Dayr al-Suryan in the eleventh century (cf.,book of Isaac of Nineveh, British Museum MS. 695). 14. The library of the Monastery of Aspholis in Ras al- Ayn, to which Constantine, the bishop of this monas- tery, as well as the city of Mardin, donated books in the year 724 (British Museum MS. 24). 15. The library of the Monastery of Mar Barsoum, collected after the monastery became a patriarchal seat at the end of the eighth century. Athanasius VI (1129), a collector of the most valuable books, used to carry with him loads of them wherever he travelled. Michael the Great adorned this library with his numerous and mag- nificent manuscripts. Further, Joseph of Amid, metro- politan of Hims, mentioned in the Lives of Saints, which he finished in 1196, that this library lacked nothing except this book (British Museum MS. 960). 16. The library of the Monastery of Atanos; this monastery was established by Athanasius al-Naal (the 4 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences cobbler) , metropolitan of Miyafarqin, near Tallbsam in the province of Ras al-Ayn in the middle of the eighth century. This monastery produced fifteen bishops from 740 to 1 042. A certain Anastas has been mentioned as its librarian (British Museum MS. 943) . 1 7. The Library of the Monastery of St. J ohn Qurdis, in the city of Dara. To this library Lazarus, bishop of Baghdad, donated the book attributed to Dionysius the Areopagite, shortly after the year 824 (British Museum MS. 625). 18. The library of Mar Hananya (known as Dayr al- Zafaran) Monastery, situated east of Mardin. Its books were collected by Mar Hananya, metropolitan of Mardin in the last decade of the eighth century. It was renewed and reorganized by Yuhanna (|ohn), bishop of Mardin (d. 1165). After the Monastery became a patriarchal seat, its books were increased to over three hundred in number. 19. The library of the Monastery of Barjaji. Since its establishment the Anba Yuhanna, disciple of Marun, undertook to have many of its books transcribed by skillful scribes and monks, and thus enriched this li- brary from 990 onwards. 20. The library of the Cathedral of Melitene. To this libraryjohn X, Bar Shushan (d. 1072), added his valu- able manuscripts. 21. The library of St. Mark’s Monastery, known as Dayr al-Suryan, injerusalem. Its books were collected at the end of the fifteenth century. A good number of them are remnants of the library of the Monastery of Magdalene (which existed from the eleventh through the fourteenth centuries). The number of its Syriac manuscripts was increased to more than three hundred and fifty volumes. 22. The Library of Qanqart’s Monastery, near Diyarbakr, collected in the second half of the twelfth century. Its books were increased by Bishop John of Amid in 1203 (cf. The Churches of Basibrina and St. Thomas in Mosul). 23. The library of the Church of the Two Apostles in Edessa was collected in later times and contained a group of the books which had belonged to the Monas- tery of Mar Abhai in Karkar, after itwas deserted. These books, which are presendy at Aleppo, number about one hundred and thirty. CHAPTER FIVE Syriac Calligraphy Since the art of calligraphy is obviously connected with the language and literature, we have chosen to devote an earlier chapter to this question, which has been neglected by historians. Some scholars are of the opinion that Syriac calligraphy antedates that of the other peoples of the world, and that the Syrians taught mankind the early method of writing, from which the Phoenicians and other nations borrowed their scripts. Although we cannot positively assert such a belief, because of the seriousness of the question and the conflicting arguments of scholars, and because it is impossible to present a conclusive discussion, we can, however, briefly state that our Syriac calligraphy is one of the most ancient calligraphies. The form of the characters of our Syriac script has changed throughout the ages, and there are no vestiges of its existence in the pre-Christian era, exceptafew insignificant lines found inscribed on stones in Edessa and other places. They were published separately by J. B. Chabot and Henri Pognon. 1 In the Christian era, we have the Estrangelo, which is the best and noblest of the Syriac scripts. Also called the “open” or the “heavy” or the “Ruhawi” (Edessene), it was invented by Paul bar Arqa or Anqa of Edessa at the beginning of the third century, as shall be seen later. The Estrangelo is considered the source of the Arabic Kufi script Most of our oldest manuscripts surviving today are written in this script, which was in continuous use until the fourteenth century. The second type is the Western Syriac script, devised in the ninth century and mixed with Estrangelo for the simplicity of its use. The Syrians kept modifying it until it became distinct from the Estrangelo during the twelfth century. I believe that it is the same script, called “Sarta,” which was used in writing prose and is still used for this purpose, while the Estrangelo was strictly used for decorating the title heads. 2 Among us there flourished a great number of callig- raphers who perfected and beautified their art. All of them were either monks, hermits or clerics whose works were an adornment of knowledge. They undertook the copying of the most voluminous works with great pa- tience and perpetuated many types of sciences and arts in their works. To be sure, ancient Syriac books preserved today in the libraries of the Orient and Europe are the oldest books in the world. 5 We have personally seen and studied most of them. However, the quantity which has reached us is very little, in comparison with the great number that have been lost through time. Even among these surviving works, we have found a considerable number either mutilated or lacking the name of the scribe. We have counted nearly one hundred and thirty skillful scribes from 462 A.D. to 1264 A.D. who used three types of Estrangelo, the thick, the medium, and the fine, with slight difference of beauty among them. In many manuscripts which they copied, there is found a creative embellishment and elegance and an over- whelming degree of perfection and uniformity. They usually wrote on special glossy parchments and seldom 5 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences on thick paper, whose manufacture began in Baghdad at the end of the eighth century, shordy after the establishment of this city; this process was introduced from China and spread to other countries. The last known manufacturing of paper was in Damascus in the middle of the sixteenth century. 4 From these calligraphers we except a group men- tioned in some of the biographies of the saints of Tur Abdin, none of whose works were found, due to the lapse of time, the successive tribulations which afflicted their countries, and catastrophes and destructive inva- sions. These scribes are Samuel and Jonathan, the ascetics, who flourished in the first quarter of the fifth century; 5 Daniel the Kundayraybi, the Chief copyist of Tur Abdin, and his pupils in the middle of the ninth century; and a few others. In his Ecclesiastical History, the most learned Bar Hebraeus stated that ‘John of Basibrina, metropolitan of the Monastery of Qartamin (998-1034), restored the use of the Estrangelo script in Tur Abdin and its neigh- borhood almost a hundred years after the destruction of the monastery. He taught this art to his nephews, the monks Emmanuel, Peter and Yaish, after he had learned it himself by careful study of books. The first of them, the deacon-monk Emmanuel, copied seventy volumes of both Testaments according to the Pshitto, the Septuagint and the Harqalite versions. He also tran- scribed homilies in three columns and thus adorned the monastery of Qartamin with books which have no equal in the world.” 6 A copy of one of the Gospels belonging to the patriarchal seat is preserved at our St. Mark’s library in Jerusalem, under number 1. Also famous in the art of calligraphy was Patriarch Yuhanna (John) XII, known as Yeshu the scribe (d. 1220), who, during his monastic life, transcribed about eighteen books; one of these was a Gospel, decorated with aqua aurum which had been in the Monastery of the Cross. I have seen three copies of the gospels in Aleppo and in Paris (MS. 40). Of the more than four- teen fanqiths (service books of prayer) transcribed by the monk-priest Zebina the Shalabdini (d. 1227), only three survived at our Church of Diyarbakr. Also, a pictorial Bible is found in the Jerusalem library 7 (MS. 28) , and another copy of the Bible in Paris, transcribed by the monk-priestBacchus of Beth Khudaydaal-Tawwaf (“wanderer”), 1213-1257. Further, Patriarch Michael the Great (d. 1 199) had beautifully transcribed a valu- able copy of the Bible, adorned each page with gold and silver.andbounditwithasilvercover. In theBibliotheque Nationale in Paris, (MSS. 113 and 167) are also in Michael’s own handwriting. Iyawannis Yeshu, metropolitan of Raban (1210), whose handwriting was extremely good, transcribed many books, of which a Bible is found at Sl Thomas Catholic Church in Mosul. Also, Dioscorus Theodorus bar Basil, metropolitan of Hisn Ziyad (d. 1273), tran- scribed books which are now preserved at the libraries of al-Zafaran Monastery, Diyarbakr and Kharput. The deacon Abd Allah of Bartulli transcribed three books which are in the libraries of Jerusalem, Aleppo and al- Sharfa. 8 Bar Hebraeus relates that “an Edessan monk-priest named Kasrun retreated to the town of Maragha, in Persia, together with people from al-Sham (Syria), who had been transported there by the Persians. He adorned our Church at Maragha with books in his own handwrit- ing, which remain preserved until this time in Nineveh. 9 He was a skillful calligrapher who spen t most of his days at St. Bahnam’s Monastery. He died in 1139.” 10 The surviving work in his handwriting is the Book of Psalms in the Estrangelo and the Western script, copied ac- cording to the Pshitto version and the variant readings of the Sep tuagin t, with his commen taries on it, which he finished at Maragha in 1 1 27. This volume is preserved at the Chaldean Patriarchate in Mosul, under No. 4. Distinguished for their art of engraving and decorat- ing, apart from their calligraphy, were the deacon Joseph of Melitene (d. 997) , the monk Yaish ofBasibrina (formerly mentioned), the monk-priest Peter, son of the deacon Abu al-Faraj Saba of Basibrina, the monk- priest Sahdo Tuma of Tur Abdin (1241), the monk Mubarak bar Dawud of Bartulli (1239), the monk-priest Bacchus of Beth Khudayda (formerly mentioned), the monk-priest Joseph of Arnas (d. 1449), and the monk Daniel Qusuri (d. 1577). Of lesser talentwas Dioscorus, metropolitan of Hisn Ziyad. From the thirteenth century until our time, about one hundred and seventy calligraphers improved the Western script and used three types of it, the thick, the medium, and the fine. The latter is exceptionally el- egan t, especially the type known as the Karkari, after the town or the citadel of Karkar, situated between Diyarkakr and Edessa and their neighboring villages. From 1577 to 1820 the calligraphers of these districts developed a fine script of extreme beauty and brilliant lines. Of those who perfected the Western script, we would like to mention specifically the monk Yeshu Shini of Bedlis (1298), the monk-priest Saliba bar Khayrun of Hah ( 1 340) , the monk-priestjacob of Manimim ( 1404) , the monk Joseph of the Natif Monastery (1443), the metropolitan Simon of Aynward (d. 1490), George bar Qarman, metropolitan of Mardin (1504), the Metro- politan Sergius of Hah (1508), the patriarch Nuh the Lebanese (d. 1509), Musa Ubayd of Sadad, metropoli- tan ofHims (d. 1510), the monk-priest Ibrahim Zanbur ofBasibrina, who transcribed nearly twenty volumes (d. 1512), Joseph, metropolitan of Kafr Hawwar (1513), the Patriarchjacob I (d. 1517), the Maphrian Sulayman of Mardin (d. 1518), the priest Simon of Hirrin (d. 1523) , Yusuf the Iberian, Metropolitan ofjerusalem (d. 1537), the Patriarch Pilate (d. 1597), the monk-priest Ibrahim bar Ghazwi the Qusuri (1607), Bahnam of Arbo, Metropolitan ofjerusalem (d. 1614), the monk- priest Abd al-Azim of Klaybin (1612), the Metropolitan History of Syriac Literature and Sciences Dionysius Abd al-Hayy of Mardin(1621), the monk- priest Abd Allah al-Mashlul of Mardin (1621), the Met- ropolitan Yuhanna of Beth Khudayda (d. 1625), the Maphrian Isaiah of Inhil (d. 1635), the Maphrian Bahnam Bati (d. 1655), Aslam, metropolitan of Amid (d. 1741), the Metropolitan John Shahin of Amid (d. l755),theChorepiscopusJacobofQutrubul (d. 1783), Iliyya (Elijah) Shiah of Mardin, metropolitan of Bushayriyya (d. 1805), the Metropolitan Abd al-Nur of Arbo (d. 1841), Metropolitan Saliba of Basibrina (d. 1885), George KassabofSadad, metropolitan ofjerusa- lem (d. 1896), the monk-priest Yeshu of Manimim (d. 1916), the deacon Matta Bulus (Paul) of Mosul, who transcribed more than forty volumes of different sub- jects, including commentaries on the Pentateuch, the- ology, ecclesiastical jurisprudence, history, literature and asceticism. They are preserved in different librar- ies. He is still living and has passed his eighty-sixth year of age. 11 Moreover, a number of our clerics still perfect the Syriac calligraphy. The first calligrapher known to have embellished the fine Karkari script was Gregory Vaness Najjar of Wank, metropolitan of Cappadocia and then Edessa (1577- 1607). He transcribed about twenty volumes of differ- entwri tings. He also transcribed with extreme precision several copies of the Gospels and the Psalms, in an extremely fine and compact handwriting. Each copy not more than seven centimeters long. Three of these copies are preserved - one in the library of St. Mark’s Monastery in Jerusalem, another in the Boston Li- brary, 12 and the third in the possession of one of the priests in Mosul. From the artistic point of view, these manuscripts are considered a marvel. Other calligraphers are Michael Barsoum of Urbish, metropolitan of Karkar (1590-1630), who transcribed the history of Michael the Great; his uncle, the monk Pilate Mukhtar (1584); the two monks Sahdo of Karkar (1599) and Micha of Wank (1606). At the end of this book the reader will find a chrono- logical catalogue of the names of these excellent men which were extracted from the invaluable manuscripts they copied. These manuscripts which survived destruc- tion attest to their excellence. We have arranged them according to their dates of transcription beginning with the oldest dates. CHAPTER SIX Morphology and Grammar The Syrians mastered the speaking and writing of their language by instinct and by custom. They did not need rules to guide them into eloquence or protect them from error. They remained in this state for an exceedingly long time. Butwhen they familiarized them- selves with the principles of Greek grammar written by Dionysius of Corinth, 1 they translated it into their own language. According to Bar Zubi, 2 the oldest Syriac grammar is attributed to Ahudemeh, Metropolitan of Takrit and all the East (d. 575), who based it on the principles of Greek grammar. To Jacob of Edessa, however, belongs the credit for delineating the path of Syriac grammar and explaining its methods. Jacob wrote the first systematic book on grammar. Bar Hebraeus cited significant parts from it which indicate the voluminousness of the original which has been lost to us. There remained only fragments of it, in which the author alluded to the defects of Syriac writing because of its concern with the consonants rather than vowels. And when the priest Paul of Antioch requested him to correct this faulty method, he an- swered that he had given some thought to this question. In fact, it had occurred to his predecessors, but their fear of the loss of these ancient books prevented them from attempting to do it. However, Jacob invented seven vowels to eliminate the deficiency. But the Syrians kept using the five vowels known to us today, which were instituted by the Magdalene Syrian monks of Qarqafta (“the Skull”) Monastery, who vocalized the language of the Scriptures. In order to attain a correct reading, Jacob of Edessa also used thirty-six diacritical points, by which he completed the forms of letters. 3 It is believed that the stylite ascetic John of Atharb wrote a grammar book which had been mentioned by the Subawi, 4 and partly cited by Bar Zubi. The abbot David bar Paul produced another work on grammar, of which only small portions remained. We notice, however, that Anton Rhetor does not mention these grammarians. The grammar which we have today is represented by The Dialogue (in prose as well as in metrical form) by Jacob of Bartulli. His sources are the Greek philoso- phers, the teachers of the Syrian schools, and the Book of Light (or Rays) by Bar Hebraeus. This book, divided into four parts, deals with the dialects of the western Syrians, who are members of our communion, as well as those of the eastern Syrians (Chaldeans and Nestorians) . He also incorporated in it a chapter on Arabic gram- mar. It is considered the best, most complete, and most exact work on grammar. It became a constitution for the students, an authority for the grammarians, and a reliable source for the Syriac-speaking people. He also composed the chapters of his grammar in the heptasyllabic meter with commentaries in Syriac, in order to make it easier for the students to read. A third grammar, the Book of the Spark, was left unfinished by the author and is lost to us. Another short treatise, composed by the Patriarch Ignatius bar Wuhayb, dealt with the “hard” and “soft” letters in grammar. Both Patriarch Isaac Azar (d. 1724) and Bishop Rizq Allah (d. 1772) left small works on 7 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences morphology. In 1764 the Chorepiscopus Jacob of Qutrubul wrote an excellent book entitled Zahrat al- Maarif (“The Flower of Knowledge”) on Syriac gram- mar and morphology; this was later abridged either by him or by some of his contemporaries. CHAPTER SEVEN General Rules of the Language and Dictionaries; Rhetoric and Poetry After Edessa, Melitene became the destination of the students of Syriac. In its Cathedral flourished professors of grammar and philology, some of whom were men- tioned by Bar Hebraeus in his Semhe (“The Book of Lights”). One of these grammarians was Eupdox of Melitene, who flourished in the eleventh or the twelfth centuries. He composed for his students a philological collection containing reading lessons, which he dic- tated to them. He marked these lessons with diacritical points and special signs to avoid confusion in reading. Later he collected them in a book which he published under his own name. Another grammarian, Jacob of Bartulli, in his very useful book The Dialogue, devoted a special chapter to the Syriac language, its eloquence, and the changes which came upon it. The western Syrians did not compile dictionaries, but relied on those of the eastern Syrians, namely, the physicians, Hunayn ibn Ishaq (d. 873) , Yeshu bar Ali (d. 1001), and particularly al-Hasan bar Bahlul al-Awani al- Tirhani (963). This latter work was interpolated by some of our writers, who borrowed many useful philo- logical themes from the works of their predecessors. An insignificant abridgement of Bar Bahlul ’s dictionary was made in 1724 by the maphrian Simon ofManimim. We found a Syriac-Armenian copy of Bar Bahlul’s dictionary, with few Arabic terms, at the Boston Mu- seum (MS. 3980) , x copied by Bishop Ephraim Wanki of Karkar, and completed in the year 1659. Undoubtedly it was translated into Armenian by a Syrian writer from Karkar. 2 Between 825 and 840, the monk Anton of Takrit (Anton Rhetor) composed his splendid work, The Knowl- edge of Rhetoric, in five treatises; 5 it has not been equalled by anyone before or since. Four of these treatises are devoted to eloquence, lucidity of composition, and partly to philology which shows his creative ability. The fifth treatise is devoted to the art of poetry, its genres and meters. By this work he remedied a deficiency, created a hope for future works, and made an excellent achievement. The previously mentioned work, The Dialogue, con- tains a chapter on rhetoric and a unique treatise on the art of poetry, confined to the conditions of poetry up to the lifetime of the author, who died in 1241. It contains also a portion of the Syriac translation of Aristotle’s Poetics, particularly concerned with tragedy, which had been translated by Abu Bishr into Arabic. 4 The Syrian writers were also proficient in the writings of letters. Of the anthologies of letters those of the eminent learned men Jacob of Saruj, Philoxenus of Mabug, Severus of Antioch, al of which were translated from the Greek, have reached us intact. Also have reached us the letter anthologies of Jacob of Edessa, George, bishop of the Arabs and Dawud (David) ibn Bulus (Paul). Also survived some individual letters of the Patriarchs Paul II, Athanasius I, Yuhanna 0ohn ) III, Severus II, Athanasius II, Iliyya (Elijah) I, Iyawannis I, Georgy I, Dionysius I, Yuhanna IV, Michael I and Michael II, and the Maphrians Marutha and Yuhanna I. Other letters which have also survived are those of Yuhanna of Talla, Tuma, bishop of Germanicia , Daniel of Salh, Jacob Baradaeus, Severus Sabukht, the Bishop Severus, Yuhanna of Atharb, Tuma the Stylite, Anton of Takrit, Denha the philosopher, Ibn (bar) Salibi and Ibn Wahbun.ThelettersofShimon (Simon) ofBethArsham, John of Ephesus and the two Patriarchs Cyriacus and Yuhanna X, ibn Shushan and many others have been lost. Our own anthology of letters since ascending the throne of the Apostolic See on January, 1933 until today, contains more than one hundred proclamations and letters. 5 Syriac poetry was composed mainly to imprint reli- gious teachings in the minds of the people and bestow upon the different types of prayer an aura of solemnity created by its melody. And when St. Ephraim achieved success through his poetry, he was followed and imi- tated by the succeeding generations. Syriac poetry falls into two classifications, odes and songs. The odes are composed in three types of meter: the heptasyllabic meter, or the Ephraimite, created by St. Ephraim; the pentasyllabic meter or Balaite meter, invented by Mar Balai, bishop of Balsh; and the twelve-syllable meter, or the Sarujite, devised byjacob of Saruj, bishop of Batnan. According to Anton of Takrit (in the fifth treatise of his book), our poets composed poetry in other meters of different syllables, right through the sixteen-syllable meter. The octasyllabic meter was invented by Anton himself, but it did not become universally used. Most of these odes were, however, composed for the purpose of recitation or chanting during the perfor- mance of worship, and also to instill the people with religious principles and virtuous life. They were usually lengthy; for example, the two poems of Jacob of Saruj about the creation and the passion of Christ contained more than three thousand lines, and the poem of Isaac of Edessa on the Parrot which chanted the Trisagion contained two thousand one hundred and thirty-six lines. 8 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences The madrash (metrical hymn) 6 resembles lyric poetry and is composed in lines of four to ten syllables. Some scholars have counted seventy-five melodies used for the authentic hymns or for those falsely attributed to St. Ephraim ; some of them con tain refrain s. These madr ashes were preceded by a few opening words from a well- known hymn, to indicate the tune to be used. One type of the madrash is the sughith, written in a dialogue form. The sughith is composed in the heptasyllabic meter and alphabetically arranged, like the sughiths between the angel Gabriel and the Virgin Mary, between Mary and the Wise Men, and between Abraham and the sacrificial lamb, written by George, bishop of the Arabs. After they studied and mastered the Arabic lan- guage, the Syrians introduced rhyme into their poetry in the beginning of the ninth century to imitate the Arabs. They wrote their poems following one rhyme or using the same rhyme for every two or four lines. Later they used rhymed prose. At the end of the thirteenth century, the extremists among these poets began to imitate with exaggeration the Arabic rhetorical devices, such as paranomasia and antithesis. They forced them- selves to compose poetry and thus marred their work with pretension and complexity, disrupting the delicate balance of form and content. Apparently, they were deceived by the poetry of Khamis Qirdahi 7 and Abd Yeshu Subawi (1290-1318), both Nestorian men of letters, and by imitating them their poetry became appallingly poor and colorless. Some of our later poets in the middle of the fifteenth, sixteenth and eighteenth centuries followed the path of Subawi. They were the monk-priests Thomas and David of Hims, the two patriarchs Nuh the Lebanese in some of his poetry and Nimat Allah in his poor rhythmic prose, the two bishops Sergius of Hah and Joseph the Iberian and the Chorepiscopus Jacob of Qutrubul. Opposed to these, however, other poets, such as Patri- arch Bahnam of Hidl (d. 1454) , Maphrian Simon ofTur Abdin (d. 1740), the Bishopjohn ofManimim (d. 1825) and Bishop Zaytun of Inhil (d. 1855), imitated the old poets. CHAPTER EIGHT Themes of Syriac Poetry The themes and purposes of Syriac poetry are: 1 . The renunciation of worldly things and the call for repentance and theway of salvation. To these principles the greatest part of poetry, especially that of the immor- tal St Ephraim, and later that of Isaac and Jacob of Saruj, was devoted. Each one of them had his own masterpieces and gems of poetry. Likewise Bar Qiqi, in his very moving poem based on the Sarujite meter, lamented himself and portrayed his penitence. 2. Description. Theological themes and commentar- ies on the Bible, as well as the versification of most of its subjects, prevail in this kind of poetry. The eminent poet Jacob of Saruj was most important in this field. To David bar Paul belongs a beautiful poem on the descrip- tion of trees, their kinds and fruits. George, bishop of the Arabs, and Lazarus bar Sobto wrote two distin- guished poems describing the sacrament of the holy Chrism. In one of his poems, Anton of Takrit described the charm of the city of Ras al-Ayn. Moreover, Bar Hebraeus composed magnificent poetry in which he described springs and flowers. Another poet, David of Hims, wrote a splendid poem on nostalgia. 3. Praise, used by our poets to exalt our Lord Christ, the Holy Church, its Sacraments and mysteries, the virtues of the Virgin Mary, and the categories of saints and martyrs. The poems of St. Ephraim, describing the Sacraments of the Church and the virtue of celibacy, combined subtlety of impression, descriptive charm, artistic splendor and beauty of theme. In this regard his poem on the bishops of Nisibin is unique. Also unique are the poems of St. Jacob of Saruj praising the two prophets Moses and Elijah, St. Ephraim, John the Bap- tist, the Apostles Peter and Paul, and the martyrs of Edessa. Beside their beauty and charm, these poems reveal the artistic proficiency and rhetorical mastery of their composers. Of the same category are the two poems of George, bishop of the Arabs, praising the martyrs of Sebaste and St. Severus, the poem of Bar Paul in praise of Bishop John, highly artistic in its use of rhetoric, and the two poems of Anton Rhetor praising Sergius and Joseph of Ras al-Ayn. One of the finest poems is by Bar Sabuni in praise of Jacob of Saruj. But the most immortal one is the poem of Timothy of Karkar (composed in the Ephraimite or heptasyllablic meter) praising the Virgin Mary, distin- guished for its lucid style, eloquence and fine composi- tion. Further, Bar Hebraeus praised some of the church fathers of his time with poems of lasting charm and fluency. The poem of Abu Nasr of Bartulli, praising Mar Matta (Matthew) the ascetic, was a great work of rheto- ric indicating the ability of its composer to utilize all the various techniques of the art of poetry. To Bahnam of Hidl belong three excellent poems in praise of the martyrs Bahnam and Basus and their companions. Of a mediocre quality are the two poems by Bar Wahbun in praise of Michael the Great and his nephew Yeshu of Melitene, the poem of Michael the Great himself, praisingjohn, metropolitan of Mardin, and the two poems of Gabriel of Bartulli on the lives of Bar Hebraeus and his brother al-Safi. Much inferior, how- ever, are the two poems of Jacob of Bartulli in praise of the noble physicians Fakhr al-Dawla and Taj al-Dawla of the Tuma family; their colorless and unnatural style is 9 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences obvious. You find the good mingled with the bad in the poetry of Zaytun of Inhil in praise of Sl Gabriel of Qartamin, and a good introductory verse with well- formulated lines byjacob Saka, praising the dignitaries of his time. 4. Elegy. In one area of our Syriac poetry we find a touch of lamentation for the sinning soul and grief for the calamities which afflicted our country because of invasions or wars. Some of these elegies expressed lamentation over a sequence of events, such as the poems of Bar Madani, describing the catastrophe of Edessa; Yeshu bar Khayrun, on the ordeal of the church of the Forty Martyrs in Mardin and the eastern coun- tries; Isaiah of Basibrina, on the calamities ofTur Abdin in the time of Tamerlane; the priest of Habsnas and John of Basibrina, on the Kurdish invasion of their country, Dawud (David) of Hims in lamenting the loss of Syriac books; and the poems of Nimat Allah of Mardin lamenting his ordeal. The panegyrics ofjoseph ofMeliteneand those of bar Shushan lamenting the city of Melitene are lost to us. In eulogizing men, none other than the masterful poet Bar Hebraeus has attained the high point of this genre of poetry, by the thoroughly moving sentiments of sorrow which he expressed in mourning his brothers Muwaffaq and Michael. In these eulogies he poured forth his soul and uttered his verse with an unpreten- tious sincerity which rendered his efforts in this genre first-class, highly artistic poetry. His two panegyrics eulogizing the Maphrian Saliba and the Patriarch John bar Madani are exemplary. Other poets also wrote eulogies, like the Patriarch Nuh, who composed a good poem eulogizing his master the ascetic priest Tuma (Thomas) of Hims, and the priest Jacob Saka, eulogiz- ing Bahnam, the metropolitan ofMosul andjoseph, the metropolitan of Malabar in two poems of good style. 5. Satire. The Syrians did not write satirical poetry; thus their poetry was free from obscene and worthless language. However, one finds only a few poems censur- ing the heretics in support of religion and adherence to the Orthodox faith. Of this type are the songs in which SL Ephraim rebuked Bar Daysan and Jacob of Saruj censured Nestorius. Connected with satire is censure and expostulation, represented by the poems of Anton of Takrit dispraising calumny and ingratitude. More- over, the poem of Bar Andrew may be considered a sharp criticism of some clergymen in his days, similar to what Isaiah of Basibrina and Simon of Manimim did in their two lengthy poems. Bar Hebraeus has few lines dispraising some of his contemporary leaders, but they are of a remonstrative, rather than a derogatory nature. 6. Aphorism and philosophy. A great deal of Syriac poetry contains aphorisms and enduring moral senti- ments. Philosophical odes are to be found in the an- thologies of Bar Madani and Bar Hebraeus, such as those on the soul, perfection and the ways of the perfect. The poetry of Bar Hebraeus contains an exposition of the principles of Socrates. A twentieth-century Syrian, Naum Faiq, translated into Syriac, in metrical form, portions of the Rubaiyyat (Quatrains) of Umar al- Khayyam. 7. Friendly ties and longing. A selection of poems of this sort is to be found in the poetry of Bar Hebraeus, which is full of tenderness and sweetness. They deal masterfully with the description of true friendship, communication with friends and enjoyment of their company. These poems are vivacious and colorful pic- tures, adorned with exquisite introductory verses and lucid style, especially the poems in which he remon- strated with his schoolmate Maphrian Saliba of Edessa. Patriarch Nuh also has written a few eloquent lines of this nature. 8 # Poetry of self-praise, heroism ( hamasa ) ,' and erotic love ( nasib ) , s had no place among the Syrians. However, Bar Hebraeus excelled in spiritual love, and his ode on divine wisdom which he adorned with splendid meta- phors and charming similitude, is considered his most superb masterpiece. It is a choice ode, unequalled for its rich and profound meaning. Part of it was translated in a metrical form into Arabic by Master Butrus al-Bustani. It begins thus: So brightly wisdom shone in our world That even the sun was eclipsed by her light; Comely maiden, full-blown matron, rather, an old woman. She combined attributes no mortal might. Many poets of a later period, likejacob of Qutrubul, Yuhanna (John) al-Bustani of Manimim, and Jacob Saka, tried to imitate Bar Hebraeus but failed to match his talents. CHAPTER NINE Categories of Syrian Poets Among the Syrian poets are found the genius, the gifted craftsman, and those who combine the qualities of each. You also find the mediocre poetand, finally, the scribbler of verse. In the first category St. Ephraim stands as a highly talented and immortal poet who won the crown of poetical genius by his masterpieces. Into splendid po- etry which poured out of his heartwithoutartificiality or constraint, he translated the details of Christian doc- trine and its mysteries. His successful artistic style, bear- ing his own stamp and seal, has never been imitated. Among the strong characteristics of his poetry are affluence, profundity, innovation, powerful style and 10 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences the ability to handle adroitly the varieties of poetic creation. Under the second heading come Jacob of Edessa, Bar Sobto, Bar Qiqi, Bar Sabuni and Bar Andrew. Bar Andrew expertly formed his style and worded his verse with marked spontaneity. Most of his poetry could well be placed within the first category. Those who combine the faculties of genius and giftedness are Isaac of Amid, Isaac of Edessa, Jacob of Saruj and Bar Hebraeus. Jacob of Saruj is distinguished for the creation and thorough examination of new concepts. Despite the length of his poems, which num- ber in the hundreds, his poetry was still sound and intact The reader is immediately struck by the unlim- ited abundance, and by the penetrating spark of poetry which suggest to him that he is undoubtedly facing a messenger inspired by a divine power. Bar Hebraeus overwhelms you with his elegant expression, lucid style, natural rhyme and his various enchanting, delicate, harmonious and artistic forms. He opens his poems with an exquisite introduction which leaves the reader no other choice than to follow him to the end. But when the reader has reached this end, he finds himself more anxious to discover what is beyond this point, and the next, and the one following. Bar Hebraeus’ impeccable poems especially his masterpieces reveal the power of his spirit and art, and the vastness of his knowledge and poetical ability. Indeed, very few other poets were able to achieve such harmony and simplicity in their poetry. Famous for their illuminating introductions, clear expression, and exquisite style are Cyrillona, Asuna, Balai and Jacob of Edessa, particularly in his madrash on the Passion of Christ In the mediocre category come Anton of Takrit, Ezekiel of Melitene, Abu Nasr al-Bartulli, al-Hidli, Nuh the Lebanese and Simon of Tur Abdin. Their poetry is characterized by pleasant introduction, purity, smooth- ness and powerful style. The poetry of the latter two, however, is more fluent and natural, except for the few instances in which Nuh the Lebanese employed a forced rhyme. The later poets, as well as the scribblers of verse have produced both good and bad poetry. The compo- sition of their poetry is a technical rather than artistic process. This is why they sometimes succeeded in pre- senting their art and sometimes failed. They were fol- lowed by another type of scribblers of verse, whose poetic compositions were marked by primitiveness, inferiority and monotony, and showed little excellence. We may nowclassify these poets into four categories. 1 The first includes SL Ephraim (d. 373), Asuna and Cyrillona (d. 400), Isaac of Amid, Rabula (d. 435), Isaac of Edessa and Simon the Potter (d. 514) and his group (the potters), Jacob of Saruj (d. 521), Jacob of Edessa (d. 708), George, bishop of the Arabs (d. 725), Bar Sobto (d. 829), Bar Qiqi (d. 1016), Bar Sabuni (d. 1095), theKarkari (d. 1 143), Bar Andrew (d. 1 156), Bar Madani (d. 1263) and Bar Hebraeus (d. 1286). The second includes Samuel the disciple of Mar Barsoum, David bar Paul (800), 2 Anton ofTakrit (840), Denha, Ezekiel of Melitene (905), Abu Nasr al-Bartulli (1290), Isaiah of Basibrina (d. 1425), Bahnam of Hidl (d. 1454), Malke Saqo (1490), Nuh the Lebanese (d. 1509) and Maphrian Shimun (Simon) (d. 1740). In the third category are Bar Wahbun (d. 1193), Michael the Great (d. 1199), Hananya al-Gharib (the stranger) (d. 1220), Jacob of Bartulli (in his versified grammar only) (d. 1241), Gabriel of Bartulli (d. 1300), Yeshu bar Khayrun (d. 1335), Saliba bar Khayrun (d. 1340), Bar Shay Allah (d. 1493), David of Hims (d. l500),Masud ofZaz (d. 1512), Nimat Allah Nural-Din (d. 1587) Yuhanna (John) of Khudayda (d. 1719), the Qutrubulli (d. l783),John al-Bustani (d. 1825), Zaytun al-Nahli (d. 1855), Naum Faiq (d. 1930) andJacobSaka (d. 1931). The fourth class includes Bar Ghalib (d. 1177), Hasan Abu Zaruqa and Yeshu of Basibrina (d. 1490), Isa al-Jazri (d. 1495), Abdo of Hah (d. 1504), the priest of Habsnas (d. 1505), Sergius of Hah (d. 1508) Joseph the Iberian (d. 1537), Bar Ghurayr (d. 1685), Hidayat Allah of Khudayda (d. 1693), Yuhanna of Basibrina (d. 1729), Bar Mirijan (d. 1804), Gurgis (George) of Azekh (d. 1847). Some of these poets, like St. Ephraim and Jacob of Saruj, were so prolific that the poetry they composed during their lifetime would fill many volumes. Slightly less prolific poets, like Isaac, filled voluminous antholo- gies. Bar Hebraeus and Bar Paul, as well as the composer of pieces of poetry, 5 were moderate. Cyrillona and those like him were much less productive. We have even found poets who wrote only one poem or even few lines of poetry. The poets whose anthologies have been collected and preserved are: St. Ephraim, Isaac (of Amid), Jacob of Saruj, David bar Paul, Anton ofTakrit, Bar Andrew, Bar Madani, Bar Hebraeus, Nuh the Lebanese, Simon of Tur Abdin and Jacob Saka. On the other hand, the poetswhose poems we can neither describe nor criticize because they are unavailable are Wafa the Aramaean, Bar Daysan (d. 222), Shimun (Simon) bar Sabbai (d. 344) , Aba, Absmayya (d. 400 ) , Dada of Amid and Marutha ofMiyafarqin (d.420), the Patriarch George I, (d. 790), Simon Bar Amraya (d. 815), Joseph of Melitene (d. 1055), Bar Shushan (d. 1072), and Bar Salibi (d. 1171). Also, we have some anonymous poems, amongwhich is an ode about Uriah the Hittite; these were in the five, seven, and twelve-syllable meters, and were composed before the eleventh century. 4 We have also read a poem in the same style by later poets. Another magnificent poem in the heptasyllabic meter concerns the Feast of the Ears of Corn and the praise of the Virgin; it opens with “O Christ, the bread of heaven, who descendeth from the heights to earth.” It was probably composed by Bar Shushan . An other eloqu en t poem in praise ofjacob of Saruj is also attributed to Bar Shushan, 6 as well as a 11 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences twelve-syllable meter poem on St. Cyriacus the Martyr, 7 two poems and a Sughith (song) about the two martyrs Bar Sabbai and Bar Bashmin, 8 a poem on Shallita the hermit, 9 and a splendid rhymed heptasyllabic Sughith, alphabetically arranged, usually recited at meals and during the drinking of wine. 10 This latter begins with: “Thee I praise O Lord,” 11 and twenty-two edifying, gnomic, alphabetically arranged poems the first of which contains one Olaph (A), the second one Beth (B), and so forth. 12 CHAPTER TEN Versions of The Holy Bible The Old Testament has two versions in Syriac. The simple version, the Pshitlo, is called thus because its translation is plain and simple. The date of its transla- tion, however, is subject of controversy among scholars. Some of these scholars claim that its introductory chap- ters were translated from the Hebrew into Syriac in the time of Solomon, son of David, and Hiram, King of Tyre. Others are of the opinion that it was translated by Asa the priest However, both of these views are poor and refutable. Still others hold that it was translated in Jerusalem by order of King Abgar of Edessa and St. Addai the Apostle. More correctly, the Pshitlo was trans- lated by a group of christianizedjews in the first century. The second version, the Septuagint, was rendered by St Paul of Tall Mawzalt, 615-61 7, by order of Athanasius I, patriarch of Antioch after the Hexapla of Origen, i.e., the Greek translation based on six sources. 1 The Septuagint translation became the scholars’ founda- tion for interpreting the Holy Scriptures. Bar Hebraeus often refers to it in his commentary Ansar Roze (Store- house of Secrets) under its name in the Greek transla- tion. He also devotes a chapter to it in his large book of grammar Semhe (The Book of Lights) 2 in which he cited twelve testimonies from the books of both Testaments proving the precision of the Septuagint rather than the Pshitlo in order to show the correctness of the first and also to close the gate of dispute and controversy in this matter. Later on the reader will come across a special trans- lation of the Psalms rendered by Simon, abbot of the Monastery of Liqin, in the first quarter of the seventh century. 5 The New Testament had three translations. The first is the simple translation made at the close of the first and the beginning of the second centuries. This version contained all the books of the New Testament except the second and the third epistles of St.John, the second epistle of St. Peter, and the epistle of St. Jude. The second is the Philoxenian translation rendered by Chorepiscopus Polycarp in the care of Mar Philoxenus, metropolitan of Mabug in the year 505. The third is the Heraclean translation from the Greek by Tuma of Harqal (Thomas of Heraclea) , bishop of Mabug in 61 6. The two Testaments also had another translation made according to the dialect of Palestine. It is the newest of all the formerly mentioned translations of which only a few portions survive. CHAPTER ELEVEN 1 The Diatessaron The Diatessaron, i.e., “through the Four”, is the Greek word for the unified Gospels containing the life and divine teachings of Christ. According to Eusebius of Caesarea and a group of our Syrian scholars until the thirteenth century, itwas compiled in fifty-five chapters (around 172/ 173 A.D.) byTatian, of Adiabene by birth, who was also called the Assyrian. Contemporary scholars sharply disagree about the Diatessaron. Some of them think thatTatian compiled it in Greek and then he or others translated it into Syriac. Others think he compiled it in Syriac. These scholars also have different opinions regarding the text of the Syriac translation which he used. A group of them conjecture that he used the Pshitlo before itwas revised, 2 others think that he used an old translation other than the Pshitlo such as the Syrian Antiochian translation known today as the Sinai Version, so-called because its copy was found in Mount Sinai Monastery in 1892, in the MS. 30 transcribed byjohn the Stylite at the Monas- tery of St. Canon in the Maarrat Misrin in the year 698 or 789. This version was published by Mrs. Lewis in 1 91 0. Still others think that he used the translation discovered by Cureton in the British MuseumMS. 14450, which was transcribed in the fifth century and published in 1858 and is called the Curetonian Gospels. Itwas republished by Burkitt in 1901, but this and the former edition are incomplete. Contemporary scholars also disagree about the date of these two translations. The reason probably is the scarce information given by ancient scholars about Tatian and his compilation. The Diatessaron was highly received by the Syrians in Edessa, and the two provinces of the Euphrates and Mesopotamia for its smooth style, excellent composi- tion and historical arrangement. They called it “The Mixed Gospel”. They used it in their churches and re- published it extensively. Aphrahat quoted it; Ephraim commented upon it; and his commentary today survives in an Armenian manuscript transcribed in 1 195 and 12 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences translated into Latin and published by Aucher in 1876. The Diatessaron was in use until the first quarter of the fifth century when it was suspended by Rabula, metropolitan of Edessa, to protect the integrity of the Revealed Book (the Holy Bible). At that time, he intro- duced the separate Gospels, which it is said he had revised according to the Greek origin, in its place. He was followed by Theodoret of Cyrus who eliminated more than two hundred copies in his diocese. Subse- quently, its circulation in the church was stopped and the copies that remained were used only for general reading. 5 A copy of the Diatessaron was, however, found in the middle of the ninth century in the handwriting of Isa ibn Ali, the physician and disciple of Hunayn ibn Ishaq whose translation into Arabic was ascribed to the priest-monk Abu al-Faraj Abd Allah ibn al-Tayyib in the middle of the eleventh century. This Arabic version was translated into Latin and published by the priest Augus- tine Ciasca in 1888. Also, it was twice translated into English -and into German in 1896 and 1926. The idea, however, of compiling the four Gospels in one had occurred to more than one Christian scholar. The oldest among these were Theophilus, patriarch of Antioch (d. 180), according to Hieronymus (Jerome) 4 , Ammonius of Alexandria, who is thought to have died around 226, and Elijah the Syrian, while he was bishop of Salamya, in the beginning of the ninth century. But when, in the middle of the ninth century, the monk Daniel of Beth Batin assigned Biblical lessons for the Week of Passion, he restored the use of the Diatessaron and in some chapters sought the assistance of the Harclensian version. 5 Further, a few Coptic scholars around the thirteenth century intended to make an Arabic compilation of the Diatessaron following the method of Ibn al-Tayyib, to which they appended two tracts on the genealogy of Christ our Lord and his resurrection. These tracts had not been included in the Diatessaron of Tatian which opened only with the five verses of the first chapter of the Gospel of St. John. A transcribed copy of this Arabicversion in the fourteenth century is preserved at the Vatican library. As for Tatian, he was born a heathen around the year 110 and studied literature, oration, history and philoso- phy in Greek and journeyed throughout Greece. His journey led him to Rome where he read the Old Testa- ment, liked it, and preferred it to the writings of the philosophers. He embraced Christianity and was associ- ated withjustin ofNeapolis, the philosopher, saint, and martyr. 6 He established or followed the principles of that sect of Anchorites called “The extremely Chaste”. Because of this, he was excommunicated from the Church. To some critics the reason for his excommuni- cation was some erroneous and dangerous phrases which he used in his writings. He returned to his country, or most likely to Edessa where he died around 180 or shortly after it He was a vessel of knowledge and a philosopher too. He composed many works in Greek, all of which are lost except his harsh and censuring letter to the Greeks. No writing of his is known in Syriac except the Diatessaron which most of the scholars think was either compiled or translated by him. 7 CHAPTER TWELVE Syriac Orthography Syrian philologists knew orthographic rules only by tradition. Teachers of the Holy Bible, according to the Pshittoversion starting with the Psalms, usually directed their pupils to read and vocalize correctly. They taught them the forming of letters, intonation, the marking of vowel signs and the fixing of diacritical points over words. This methodology began in the School of Edessa at the beginning of the fifth century from whence it was transmitted into the school of Nisibin. It was usually divided into three parts. The first, contained vocalized and accentuated copies of the Old Testament; the second, included tracts on diacritical and vowel points; and the third, contained tracts on vague and strange terminology. Master Sabroy, the founder of the school of Beth Shahaq, is accredited with introducing this methodology into the Orthodox schools of the East. In 705 St. Jacob of Edessa revised the vocalizing of the Old Testament text at the Monastery of Talada and elaborated on the system of vowel-signs, thus complet- ing the system which we have today. He divided the Holy Scriptures into chapters, wrote an introduction about the con ten ts of each, an d made many marginal notes on the text, together with the correct pronunciation of words, containing studies of the Greek as well as the Syriac versions of the Bible. A group of these Biblical books survive in ancient manuscripts written between 719 and 720. Eminent philological scholars among the monks of Qarqafta (the Skull), a monastery in Magdal, a village on the Khabur river not far from present day Ras al-Ayn and al-Hasaka, followed the steps of Jacob of Edessa. Their work led to what became commonly known as the Qarqaftian Tradition. In Ras al-Ayn two prominent scholars flourished, Santa Tubana who lived in a mon- astery in that district and Deacon Saba of Ras al-Ayn. Saba had a vast knowledge of the science of philology and a great mastery of the orthographic rules of the Holy Scriptures. He was a man of piety too. According to Bar Bahlul in his dictionary (columns No. 1363 and 1364), whenever Tubana and Saba fin- ished the vocalizing of a chapter they fixed their initials at the end. Books, which had been transcribed by Saba in 724 and 726, have also reached us - indicating the progress in this art in that period. Among the scholars 13 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences who worked in this art were Brother Ibrahim of the Monastery of Quba between 724-726 1 , Simon of the village of Tall Kummathri, abbot of the Monastery of Ouspholis, and Theodosius of Talla, the organizer, 2 BishopGurgis (George) in 736, 5 Ibrahim ofHah and his disciple the deacon Rubil in 817, 4 and Basil, Samuel, Simon and Guriyya (Gabriel) in the Monastery of Murayba in 841. 5 MS. 168 of the British Museum contains the Book of Psalms vocalized by the two monks Samuel and Matta of the Monastery of the Eastern Syrians in 600. Another, MS. 1 7l in the same library, contains an old copy of the Gospels compared, and vocalized by the priest of the village of Nahra and his two disciples Yuhanna bar Daniel al-Arabi and deacon Yuhanna the Arab from Unamra. These traditional books do not furnish the entire text of the Holy Scriptures. They are confined only to the verses whose pronunciation needs adjustment or to those that differ in both the Greek and Syriac transla- tions. The reader will find that the pronunciation of these verses has been accurately accentuated despite the difference in the copying of these texts. Some of these philologists added to the Scriptures selected pieces from the works of our doctors Dionysius theAreopagite, Basilius, Gregory Nazianzen, Gregory of Nyssa and Severus of Antioch. Some of these were engaged in vocalizing the works of St. Ephraim, Jacob of Edessa, Antonius of Takrit and the lives and histories of the saints. We have found twelve old copies of these traditional books, which are dated between 980 and 1205. One copy of these books at the Zafaran Monastery MS. 241, is dated 1 000 A.D., and another more recent copy at St. Mark’s Monastery in Jerusalem, MS. 42, was written at the end of the fifteenth century. The British Museum has a unique Nestorian copy finished in 899. Another British Museum MS. 163, contains the last volume of St. Severus vocalized by the two monks Samuel and Tuma (Thomas) of the Monastery of John of Nayrab in 563. The library of St. Mark in Jerusalem also contains the book of Patriarch Cyriacus vocalized by the priest Theodorus of T akrit of the Pillar Monastery in 806 who, it appears, became metropolitan of Marash (Germanicia) between 825 and 834. CHAPTER THIRTEEN Commentaries On The Old and New Testaments The Syrian scholars devoted their utmost efforts to studying and commenting on the Holy Scriptures. Had the many volumes of commentaries not been lost we would have today a complete library of these alone. The oldest of these commentaries belongs to St. Ephraim who wrote them while teaching at the School of Edessa. Yet all that survived was the commentary on Genesis, a great part of Exodus and scattered verses from other books of the Scriptures. His commentary on the New Testament has been lost too, but an exposition of many Biblical verses in his poems and homilies can be found. St. Ephraim’s disciple, Aba, wrote a commentary on the Gospels, a discourse on the Book of Job and an exposition of the ninth verse of the forty-second Psalm. Jacob of Saruj wrote many maymars (metrical homilies) containing copious commentaries on numerous sub- jects in the Holy Bible. The commentary of Philoxenus of Mabug on the Gospels has reached us. Moreover, we have the commentaries of Anbajohn bar Aphtonia on the Song of Songs, of Daniel of Salh on the Psalms in three volumes and of Marutha, maphrian of Takrit on the Gospels which has been quoted by the monk Severus of Antioch. The commentary of Jacob of Edessa on the Holy Bible have also reached us either in his private writings or epistles. Regarding the commentaries of Bishop George of the Arabs, none of them have reached us except those quoted by later commentators. Furthermore, Rabban (doctor) Lazarus of Beth Qandasa compiled a commen- tary on some of the Pauline epistles, and Patriarchjuijis I (George) commented on the Gospel of St. Matthew, John of Dara has a commentary of which nothing is known except his quotations from Bar Salibi’s commen- tary on the New Testament. From Moses bar Kifa, metropolitan of Baremman and expositor of the New and Old Testaments we have portions of the commen- tary on Genesis and the Gospels of Matthew, Luke and John as well as those of the Epistles of St. Paul. According to Bar Hebraeus in his AusarRoze (Store- house of Secrets), other commentators were the priest, Andrew of Jerusalem, deacon Zoura (Zura) of Nisibin (quoted by Bar Salibi in his commentary on the Old Testament), and the Rabban Yuhanna (John), the dis- ciple of Marun, who wrote a commentary on the Book of Ecclesiastes. Most prominent in this field is Jacob bar Salibi, metropolitan of Amid (d. 1171), who contributed elabo- rate commentaries on both Testaments. In these mas- terful commentaries he cited the opinions of the eru- dite commentators before him. He commented on the Old Testament in many volumes and then abridged his work with a commentary of adequate length. Unfortu- nately, his first commentary was lost but the second survived. Furthermore, his commentary on the New Testament has become authoritative. Bar Hebraeus’ AusarRoze (Storehouse of Secrets) contains a commen- tary on the Old and New Testaments which he adorned with rare traditional as well as philological material. He also made observations on previous commentaries 14 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences which uncovered and solved problems with unequaled erudition. Besides, the Maphrian Barsoum II al-Madani (d. 1454) abridged and commented upon Bar Salibi’s commentary of the Gospels, Patriarch Bahnam of Hidl made a selection of the commentaries of the Salhi on the Psalms, and David of Hims abridged parts on the same commentary. 1 It may be known that the pioneer commentators until the eighth century provided us with the results of their endeavor. Their commentaries varied from short to long. The commentators of the second period made use of the works of their predecessors, especially the commentaries by the leading Christian fathers like Ephraim, Basilius,John Chrysostom, Cyril and Severus as well as the Syrian commentators who followed them. They chose from their opinion whatever they desired, added to them what they thought they could add, and, to a small extent, developed these commentaries. Thus, Bar Salibi after presenting the different opinions on the subject leaves it up to the reader to choose what he thinks the most appropriate for him. The method used by these commentators was either to comment on the text verse by verse or confine their commentary to a group of verses. Some of them, how- ever, followed the method of the School of Antioch which emphasized the literal meaning. Others followed the method of the School of Alexandria which empha- sized the symbolic and spiritual meaning, while still others such as Bar Salibi combined both methods. CHAPTER FOURTEEN Apocryphal Writings In ancient times some writers fabricated apocryphal treatises of the Old Testament which were spread among the Eastern Christians especially the Syrians. Among these are the Parva Genesis or The Book of Jubilees, the Testament of Adam of which only fragments remain, 1 the Book entitled the Cave of Treasures 1 ascribed to St. Ephraim, and the Conversation of Moses with God on Mount Sinai published by Hall in Chicago in 1888. In 1887 William Wright published a Psalm and four songs, one of which was Psalm 151, which begins, “I was young in the house of my father”, taken from the Septuagint. The first song was the prayer of King Hezekiah when he was pressed by his enemies, the second was the song of the Israelites when Cyrus permitted them to return to their country, the third and the fourth were the songs chanted by King David after he wrestled with and killed the wolf and the lion which had each snatched a lamb from his flock. Also, the Apocalypse of Baruch was pub- lished by Ceriani in the Book of Ezra and the fourth book of Maccabees. 5 The latter was republished by Barnes with six Syriac texts relating to the martyrdom of the Maccabees. Mention has also been made of the story of Ahiqar (abridged from an Aramaic copy written earlier than the Book of Tobit in the seventh or fifth centuries B.C.) which was published by Rendel Harris in Cambridge in 1898 and translated into French by Frangois Nau in 1909. The apocryphal writings of the New T estament trans- lated from the Greek are extensive. There is, however, an obvious difference between them and the originals such as the Testament of Our Lord which appears in the Constitutions Apostolorum, believed to have been written in the beginning of the fifth century, the fabricated Gospel of the Infancy of our Lord also written in the fifth century and later the Doctrina Apostolorum written in the middle of the third century, the letter of St. Jacob bishop ofjerusalem to the Christian Italian Cydorotus informing him of the judgement of Tiberius Caesar against thejews, and the minutes of the trial of our Lord before Pontius Pilate (which was copied from the Gos- pel of Nicodemus together with the letters of Herod and Pilate whose copy was found in the Didascalia Apostolorum preserved in our Church in Midyat and is believed to have been transcribed around the eighth century). It was published by Mgr. Rahmani in the second volume of his Studia Syriaca , 4 Regarding the story of the Virgin Mary and the life of Our Lord on Earth, it may be said that they were abridged from the protevangelium Jacobi and the Gos- pels of St. Matthew, the Gospel of the Infancy of Our Lord or the Gospel of St. Thomas the Hebrew and the Gospel of the Nativity and Assumption of the Virgin in six chapters (extant in many libraries, one being a copy from our patriarchal library in Hims finished in 1468; it was translated into English and published by Wright in London in 1865, 5 and was republished by Mrs. A. Lewis in 1902 after a copy in the Library of Mount Sinai.) The story of the Virgin Mary was translated into English and published by Budge in 1899. Moreover, there survive in Syriac only The Story of Pilate, the Funeral of the Virgin, the Apocalypse of St. Paul, the Death of John, and the Acts of Matthew, Andrew and Thecla. 6 The Gospel of the Aposdes written in the eighth century was published by Rendel Harris in 1900. A great many copies of the Acts and martyrdom of Peter and Paul, the Life of St.John, the Acts of Philip and the Apostle Thomas called Judas Thomas also survive. There are several copies of these acts apparently written in Syriac around 332 with a Gnostic touch especially the Song of the Soul which is unique and of authentic Syriac origin. It was versified in a six-syllable meter containing one hundred and five refrains. Itwas edited, translated and published by Bevan in 1 897. Also preserved in Syriac are the texts of two treatises on virginity ascribed to St. Clemis (Clement) of Rome (d. 101), but they were most likely written at the end of the 15 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences third or in the fourth century. The apocryphal teaching of Peter in Rome is of much later period and is remotely connected with the apocryphal Acts of this Apostle. CHAPTER FIFTEEN Semi-Apocryphal Literature We may add to the semi-apocryphal literature the following: 1. The Didascalia Apostolorum. No one would ignore the value of this magnificent ancient work, which has become the foundation for the six books known as Constitutiones Apostolorum. The Didascalia contains the different canons of the entire church: categories, ranks, conditions and religious duties of the faithful such as prayer, fasting and the like. It is established that these canons were instituted by some pious church fathers in the beginning of the third century taken from the traditions of their predecessors, the evangelists who in turn received them from the Apostles. They modified them according to the traditions and customs of their time and ascribed them to the twelve Aposdes. The Greek origin of the Didascalia is lost, but thanks be to God, an ancient Syriac copy which dates back to the third century, i.e., very close to the date of its writing, has survived. It was published by Paul de Lagarde in Leipzig in 1 852 according to a copy in Paris which was given as a gift by the Archduke of Tuscany to Eusebe Renaudot in the beginning of the eighteenth century and was republished by Mrs. Gibson in 1903 in London and also translated into many European languages, for example French (by Francois Nau in 1912).Acopyofthe Didascalia completed in 1204 is preserved in our library at Hims. 2. The Doctrine of Addai, or Addaeus is a very old treatise indicating the existence of the Apostle Addai and his successor Aggai. It avers that when the King of Edessa, Abgar the Black, heard of the news of Christ and the healing which he did without medicine in Palestine, he wrote Christ, inviting Him to Edessa to cure the king of his disease and share his kingdom with him. The Lord Jesus replied that before His ascension into heaven He would entrust one of His Apostles to cure the king physically and spiritually. Addai, the Apostle who was designated for this task, visited the king after the Pente- cost, cured him and called him to Christianity. The king as well as pagans and Jews embraced the new faith. Subsequently, Addai destroyed the heathen temples and built the first church in Edessa which he adminis- tered until the end of his days, appointing Aggai his successor. He was buried in the tombs of the Edessan Kings. Orientalists believe that this event took place in the middle of the second century, but in our Ecclesiasti- cal History we have proved that it took place in the first century. 1 Eusebius the historian knew this doctrine in its origi- nal copy, but additions were made to itat the end of the fourth century such as the story of the messenger of King Abgar presenting to him the picture of Christ, the imaginary story of the discovery of the Cross by Brotonica, wife of Claudius Caesar (41-54 A.D.), which, of course, was derived from the story of the Empress Helen. It was translated and published by G. Phillips in London in 1876. In St. Mark’s Library in Jerusalem there is a copy of the Testament of our Lord written byClemis (Clement) in eight chapters, the second book of Clemis translated byjacob of Edessa to Syriac in 687 and the Doctrine of Addai under Nos. 153 and 247. CHAPTER SIXTEEN Church Rituals It is obvious that church rituals, namely, obligatory prayers and Holy Sacraments, in essence date back to the beginning of Christianity. For the Church of God could not do without the supplicatory prayers recited during the worship, the celebration of the Holy Eucha- rist and the reciting and explaining of the Book of God, all of which, according to St. Paul, had been handed down to it by the Apostles. The author of the Didascalia has incorporated these along with institutional prayers of this kind although they are much too brief. The first supplications were the Psalms of the Prophet David which prevailed in the Church because they contained beautiful songs and praises of sweet and noble meanings. By the end of the fourth century famous Christian authorities began to introduce into these rituals metrical hymns of special melodies. Also they kept writing the necessary prosaic supplications besides the metrical ones until by the end of the seventh century the great majority of the rituals of the Syrian church were in complete order, with some additions introduced in the following generations. This method was followed by all the other Christian denominations regardless of their race or language. That these church rituals in the first few centuries were not uniform even in the neighboring countries, except in their fundamentals and basic branches, is an established fact. However, it was natural that differ- ences should occur in the versions of these rituals due to the spread of Christianity, the vastness and diversifi- cation of these rituals, and disparity of education be- tween the authors let alone the ability of the scribes. Thus Lazarus bar Sobto, metropolitan of Baghdad (d. 16 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences 829) , in his treatise on the Revision of the Service of the Holy Eucharist (para. 3, p. 31), states that “the priests have composed for themselves service books in which they ignorantly included superfluous as well as inadequate matters”. Likewise, Bar Wahbun states in his exegetical treatise of the Holy Eucharist that “the priests’ service book contains superfluousness as well as inadequacies”. Since church rituals which contained many eloquent writings have a prominent place in the history of Syriac literature, their study has become most significant. The Orientalists, however, have overlooked this subject for its inherent difficulty, with the exception of Baumstark, who only touched upon it in his book. These works on the Syrian Church deal with fifteen kinds of rituals: 1 ) The Ishhim or the book of regular weekday prayer; 2) Lessons from the Holy Bible; 3) The book of liturgies or of the celebration of the Holy Eucharist; 4) Service book of Sunday for the whole year; 5) Books of prayer for principal feasts as well as festivals of saints; 6) Two service books for Lent and the Week of Passion; 7) The books of husoyos or supplications for Sundays, feasts. Lent, the Week of Passion and others; 8) The service book for baptism, matrimony, ex- treme unction, and penance; 9) The book of the ordination of clergymen; 10) Book of principal feasts; 11) The book of funerals; 12) The book of the supplication of priests and the prayers of monks; 13) The church choral book; 14) The book of life; 15) The calendar of feasts for the whole year. Before venturing into these subjects, however, it would seem to be feasible to present first a study of church music which will be supported by references to ancient copies. SECTION ONE Church Music The fathers of the Church introduced music into the Church of God for three reasons. First, to combat the hymns of heathens and heretics in which they tried to corrupt the doctrine and the morals of youth. They counteracted by composing lucid, moralistic and reli- gious hymns which destroyed corrupting poetry. Second, toassistin energizing the people to worship God and drive away boredom during the long services. Third, to stimu- late the senses in order to realize the meaning of prayer. Usually when worshippers sing or listen to the chant- ing of prayers they can more easily comprehend the meaning of what they chant. Moreover, melodious prayers make their way more quickly into the minds, souls and hearts of the worshippers, and call for humil- ity. In this regard the fathers of the Church found an example in the Psalmist David and his organized choir. To follow his steps, they composed, after the Council of Nicaea, hymns with harmonious tunes based on com- mon musical scales. St. Ephraim was the first among the Syrians to write these hymns while among the Greeks St. Gregory Nazianzen, Cyril of Jerusalem and John Chrysostom took the lead. Among the Syrians they were followed by Isaac, Rabula and Balai, the band of the potters, Jacob of Saruj, the Greek, Severus of Antioch, Jacob of Edessa and the composers and translators of the hymns known to the Greeks as the Canons. These and others who followed in later generations composed various hymns with a perfection which appealed tremendously to the worshippers. This is why the great majority of our Syriac rituals are in metrical form. 1 The Syrians and Greeks used eight melodies which they called “okteochos” 2 amongwhich were the “warm”, the “cold”, the “humid” and the “dry” tunes.* These melodies included the joyful, the grieving, the hum- bling, the stimulating and the active. Of these, two counterpart melodies were selected for chanting each week. For instance, the first melody corresponded with the fifth, etc. They also prescribed for each feast or well- known festival season or event a special melody which perfectly applied to the occasion. 4 For these melodies they chose pleasant and mellow voices and arranged the singers in two choirs which chanted antiphonally. These highly organized choirs were conducted by a priest or deacon skilled in the art of melody, rhythm and harmony. Among the conductors who became famous around the year 1218 was Rabban Abu al-Faraj bar Elisha, distin- guished for hisvivid memory. According to Bar Hebraeus, ( Eccles . History, vol. 1, p. 637), bar Elisha memorized the fanqith or service book for the whole year. From the artistic and composition point of view the most beautiful songs were the tahhsheftos, qatismas, muabranas, and madrashes which were the first and foremost of all the songs. Most of these songs were characterized by various intonations and pitches which were delicate and touching. The Syrians, especially of Diyarbakr and Edessa, have become widely known for their chanting of these songs received by tradition. But as they did not write them down in notes, a good many of them were lost in time although a sufficient number of them survived. SECTION TWO The Regular Weekday Sendee Book The regular weekday service book or the Ishhim (Simple) is a medium-sized book comprised of prayers 17 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences and songs, and although brief it contains many themes relating to praises, repentance, the commemoration of the Virgin, the Apostles, the Fathers of the Church, the prophets, and the martyrs and the dead. These prayers and songs are metrical, save for the verses recited daily with the Magnificat of the Virgin Mary which begins “My soul doth magnify the Lord”. They are distributed over the seven times of prayer, i.e. evening prayer (nones) , night prayers (vespers) , the compline, morning prayers and the prayers at the third hour, sixth hour and ninth hour. Today, these prayers are chanted only in the mornings and evenings in special and common melo- dies based on the eight basic melodies with two of them alternated for each week. This service book was most likely compiled at the end of the seven th century by the effort of St. Jacob of Edessa as mentioned by a copy preserved at the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris transcribed in the fifteenth century. This author has read in some ancient copies of this book that it was compiled according to the Edessan tradition. The authors of this book are St. Ephraim, St. Jacob of Saruj, St. Isaac, St. Balai, metropolitan of Balsh, and Simon the Potter. It is not unlikely that Jacob of Edessa was also a contributor to the writings of this book and that he selected a simple and unintricate verse that would be easily comprehended by the different catego- ries of believers. In the fourth chapter of his treatise against the allegations of deacon Yeshu who, fascinated by the Greek rituals, criticized the simplicity of the Ishhim (Service Book), Bar Salibi wrote: “This book was prepared for chanting by the simple worshippers and monastics. This is why its compilers chose simple verses which would immediately be assimilated by the mind and would move the heart M1 Indeed things are meant to suit their purpose. Of the oldest copies which we came across are few leaves preserved in the Damascus Museum which are the remainder of a copy written around the eighth century in a terminology slightly different from that in the common copies familiar to us. Another mutilated copy, owned by the Edessenes’ Church in Aleppo, 2 was written in the Estrangelo script in the fourteenth cen- tury according to the tradition of the Holy Mountain of Edessa. On another place of this copy there is this statement: “according to the arrangement of the Holy Monastery of St. Jacob or the Monastery of al-Nawawis.” This copy also contains verses of poetry different than the verses which we have today, most of which belong to the third, sixth and ninth hours of prayer. In these verses the litany is sometimes repeated or superseded by a short supplication. The Ishhim was published in the Zafaran Monastery in 1890. It was also published by this writer for the second time in 1913 and for the third time injerusalem in 1934 and compared with seven other moderately old copies which were collated with copies in Mosul and al- Sham which differ in some places. This writer wrote a historical introduction for the third edition. SECTION THREE Lectionaries Syrian scholars divided the Scriptures into chapters, from which they selected reading lessons for the whole year, as follows: 1) for Sundays and feasts, from the consecration of the Church to the Festival of the Cross; 2) throughout Lent; 3) for principal feasts; 4) for the rituals of clerical ordination and assuming the monastic order; 5) for the administration of the Holy Sacraments, especially the consecration of baptismal anointment and the chrism; 6) for funeral services. They also prescribed for each Sunday and festival three lessons from the Old Testament, the third to be selected from the prophets, and three lessons from the New Testament, including one from the Acts of the Aposdes and one from the catholic epistles, or one from the Pauline epistles and one from the Gospels. They also prescribed four or five lessons from the Old Testament for the consecration of the chrism, specific Sundays of Lentand Good Friday. In the admin- istration of the two sacraments of baptism and the Holy Eucharist, only one lesson from the Pauline Episdes and another from the Gospels are to be recited. Another three lessons from the Gospels were assigned for morn- ing and evening recitadon, as well as during the celebra- tion of the Holy Eucharist. For both Christmas and Easter, a fourth lesson was added for the evening ser- vice. Other lessons were also recited twice in every day of Lent except Saturdays, and at every prayer hour during the Passion Week. Three lessons were assigned to the feast of Pentecost. The assignment of these chapters by the scholars of the Church was made in accordance with the themes of Sundays, festivals and ordinary days of worship. Their division is marked with taste, precision and great wis- dom not found in the rest of the Eastern or Western Christian rites. These scholars, however, excluded from the Scriptures the reading of the Song of Songs, the Book of Revelation and the greater parts of the two Books of the Maccabees. The arrangement of Gospel lessons to be recited in Passion Week was made in the middle of the ninth century by Daniel, the monk of the Monastery of Beth Batin and disciple of Benjamin, bishop of Edessa, as- sisted by his enterprising pupil Isaac the monk. Daniel selected some of these lessons from the Diatessaron and collected those readings scattered in the four Gospels. 18 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences From that time on, transcribers of the Gospels have mentioned the work of Daniel and Isaac in all the copies which have reached us. In the Bibliotheque Nationale MS.258 we read that in 1000 A.D. the Patriarch Athanasius IV of Antioch, known as al-Salhi (d. 1002), collected and classified lectionaries from the Old and New Testaments. These lessons were recited in Syriac. Three old cop- ies of the collections of lectioneries are preserved in the British Museum (MS. 220, dated 824; MS 243 dated 862; and MS. 224 dated 1000). Another fourteenth century copy, in a good script, is preserved at our Library in Hims. Copies of the Gospels are plentiful and available in most libraries. The oldest Syriac copy of the New Testament, which was translated into Arabic, dates back to the year 1189 and is preserved in the Monastery of St Matthew. Much later the books of the Old Testament were written in Arabic, and thus the readings of the Bible were con- fined to this language, except in Tur Abdin. 1 However, we are unable to investigate the subject of the Arabic translation of both Testaments, due to the unavailabil- ity of clear old texts and authentic historical informa- tion. Whatwe know is thatjohn III, patriarch of Antioch, concerned himselfwith the translation of the Gospels to Arabic by scholars well versed in both languages from the tribes of Tay, Tanukh and U qayl, about the year 643, at the request of Umayr ibn Sad, Prince of thejazira, as we are told by the anonymous Edessene historian 2 and Bar Hebraeus. 3 Another translation into Arabic from the Septuagint was made by the famous Nestorian physician Hunayn ibn Ishaq (d. 873). 4 We have also found in Kitab al-Din wal-Dawla ( The Book of Religion and State ) , by Ali ibn Rabban al-Tabari 5 (d. ca. 860) , pub- lished by Mingana in Egypt in 1923, portions of the Old Testament and chapters from the Books of the Proph- ets, as well as fragments from the New Testament, written in the most eloquent and magnificent style. We do not know much about this translation. A translation of the Pentateuch from the Syriac Septuagint into Arabic was made by al-Harith ibn Sinan, who may be al-Harith ibn Sinan Sinbat al-Harrani the Malkite at the close of the ninth and the beginning of the tenth century. 6 A translation of the Old Testament was also made by al-Shaykh Said ibn Yaqub al-Fayyumi, better known as Sadiya al-Yahudi (the Jew), about the year 900. Manuscript 21 of the Florentine library con- tains an Arabic translation of the Pentateuch from the Hebrew, made in 1245. Another copy of the Old Testa- ment containing half of the books of the Pentateuch, copied from the translated version of al-Shaykh Said al- Fayyumi, is preserved in the library of the Coptic Patri- archate in Egypt (MS. 23) and dated 1585. Our library has a mutilated copy of the Acts and the Epistles trans- lated by Severusibn al-Muqaffa, bishop of the Ash mu n in, in the tenth century from Greek, Syriac and Coptic copies, which were commented on in 1240. Vatican Library MS. 145 contains an Arabic translation of the Psalms, the Gospels, the Prophets, and the Episdesfrom the Greek according to the usage of the Church, by the deacon Abd Allah ibn al-Fadl al-Antaki al-Rumi (d. 1052). In 1250 al-Shaykh Asad Abu al-Faraj ibn al-Assal the Copt coordinated a translation of the Gospels. Our library in Jerusalem contains two excellent copies of the Gospels, one in Syriac and the other in Arabic. The Syriac copy is written in the Nestorian script and un- dated, while the second copy, more rhetorical than the first, (MS. 261) was completed in 1229. MS. 42 of the Bibliotheque Nationale contains a copy of the Gospels translated from the original Greek, transcribed in 1226. Another copy in Birmingham (MS. 431) was copied in 1368. 7 The library of Mar Matta (Matthew) Monastery has the book of Psalms in Syriac and Garshuni, in a very eloquent language, copied in 1445. We believe that the Book of Psalms exists in many Arabic translations, as well as Syriac translations from the Greek. Despite the difficulty of investigating these scattered translations and texts, we have found that the Arabic Church versions of the Holy Scriptures greatly difFer in quality and fall into three categories: the eloquent, the mediocre and the poor composition. Things in the East remained as they were, as we have formerly mentioned, until the new, familiar Arabic translation appeared in the nineteenth century, super- seding the Latin and Arabic translations which were published in Rome in 1671. Of these translations, the nearest one to the Syriac Pshitto is the one edited by the Catholic Bishop Yusuf Dawud, who has copied verbatim parts of it, especially the New Testament, from old manuscripts found in the churches and monasteries in Iraq. It was published in Mosul between 1871 and 1878. The most lucid of these copies is the Jesuit translation published in Beirut between 1872 and 1878. SECTION FOUR Liturgical Books “Liturgy” or “anaphora” are two Greek terms signify- ing the celebration of the Eucharist. The second one, anaphora, became more popular and widely used by the Syrians. Of all the Christian denominations, the Syrians wrote the greatest number of liturgies, amounting to about eighty pieces of varying length. This writer read seventy-four of these liturgies. 1 These liturgies belong to two classes. In the first are those ascribed to some of the Apostles, Evangelists and early Christian fathers. Apart from the liturgy of St. James, the brother of our Lord, it would be incorrect to ascribe any liturgy to an Apostle or Evangelist. However, some scholars believe that the two liturgies of the twelve Apostles, as well as that of St. Mark the Evangelist, are 19 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences the oldest. This has been also intimated by the Patriarch George I (d. 790). 2 The second part includes authentic and genuine liturgies, regarding only fundamental matters, beginning with the liturgy of St. Basilius of Caesarea and Eustathius of Antioch and others. 5 It is obvious that the liturgy of St. James, which is unques- tionably old, is of an Apostolic origin in most of its principal public prayers. Its private prayers, however, may be ascribed to the post-Apostolic era. This liturgy was revised by St. Jacob of Edessa (d. 708), whose long version was abridged by Bar Hebraeus (d. 1286) into a version known as the Short The oldest liturgy which is preserved in the British Museum was written on vellum around the tenth cen- tury. The rest of the copies were written in the latter part of the twelfth century and thereafter. There is a large number of these liturgies in most libraries, especially the British Museum MS. 14690 (dated 1182) and MS. 17229 (dated 121 8). Following is a list of these liturgies: 1, 2) the two liturgies of St. James (d. 61), i.e., the Long and the Short; 3) the liturgy of St. Mark the Evangelist (d. 62) ; 4,5) the two long and short liturgies of St. Peter (d. 67) , head of the Apostles; 6) the liturgy of the twelve Apostles ascribed to St. Luke the Evangelist; 7,8) the two long and the short liturgies of St. John the Aposde (d. 90); 9) the liturgy of Dionysius the Areopagite (d. 96); 10) the liturgy of St. Clemis (Clement) of Rome (d. 102), beginning “O Lord, who art the indescribable ocean of goodness;” 1 1) a second liturgy by the same man, beginning, “O God, who art the ocean of love that surpasseth descrip- tion” (the Hims copy); 12) the liturgy of Ignatius the Illuminator (d. 107); 13) the liturgy of Pope Xystus (d. 25 1); 4 14) the liturgy of Eustathius of Antioch (d. 338), which begins with “O Lord the compassionate, whose mercy is abundant;” 15) a second liturgy by this Eustathius, beginning “O Lord, who are the ocean of safety (St. Mark’s MS. 86) ;” 16) the liturgy of Julius of Rome (d. 356); 17) the liturgy of Athanasius the Apostolic (d. 373) ; 18) the liturgy of Basilius, metropolitan of Caesarea (d. 379); 19) the liturgy of Cyril ofjerusalem (d. 386); 20) the liturgy of Gregorius Theologus (d. 390); 21) the liturgy of St. John Chrysostom (d. 407); 22) the liturgy of Celestine of Rome (d. 440); 23) the liturgy of Cyril of Alexandria (d. 444); 24) the liturgy of Proclus of Constantinople (d. 444)5; 25) the liturgy of Dioscorus of Alexandria (d. 457); 26) the liturgy of Timothy II of Alexandria (d. 470) ; 27) the liturgy of Jacob of Saruj (d. 521); 28) another liturgy by Jacob of Saruj; 29) the liturgy of Philoxenus of Mabug (d. 523); 30) another liturgy by Philoxenus of Mabug; 31) the liturgy of Severus of Antioch (d. 538); 32) the consecration of the cup by Severus; 33) the liturgy of Simon of Beth Arsham (d. 540); 34) the liturgy of Jacob Baradaeus (d. 578); 35) the liturgy of Peter Callinicus of Antioch (d. 591); 36) the liturgy of Thomas of Harqal (d. 616); 37) the liturgy of Severus, bishop of Samosata (d. 636); 38) the liturgy ofjohn III of Sedras (d. 648); 39) the liturgy of Marutha of Takrit (d. 649); 40) the liturgy ofjohn, bishop of Busra (d. 650); 41) the liturgy of Maphrian Ibrahim al-Sayyad (d. 685); 42) the liturgy of Jacob of Edessa (d. 708); 43) the liturgy ofjohn, metropolitan of St. Matthew’s Monastery (d. 752); 44) the liturgy of Patriarch Cyriacus (d. 817); 45) the liturgy of Basilius Lazarus bar Sobto, bishop of Baghdad (d. 828); 46) the liturgy ofjohn, bishop of Dara (d. 860); 47) the liturgy of St. Isaac (tenth century); 48) the liturgy ofMoses Bar Kifa, bishop of Baremman (d. 903); 49) another liturgy by bar Kifa; 50) the liturgy of Matta or Harma al-Rai, bishop of al- Hassasa (tenth century); 51) the liturgy of Patriarch John bar Shushan (d. 1072); 52) another liturgy attributed to him by some schol- ars; 53) the liturgy of Ignatius, maphrian of the East (d. 1164); 54) the long liturgy of Jacob bar Salibi (d. Il7l); 55) a medium-sized liturgy by bar Salibi; 56) another short liturgy by him; 57) a liturgy compiled by Bar Wahbun (d. 1193) from the liturgies of Church fathers; 58) the liturgy of Patriarch Michael the Great (d. 1199); 59) the liturgy of Jacob, maphrian of the East (d. 1214); 60) the liturgy of Michael (Yeshu the intruder) (d. 1214); 61) the liturgy of Patriarchjohn al-Gharib (d. 1220); 62) the liturgy of Iyawannisjacob bar Shakko, bishop ofMardin, al-Khabur and Dara (d. 1231); 63) the liturgy of Gregorius of Bartulli, bishop of St. Matthew’s Monastery and Azerbayjan (d. ca. 1250); 64) the liturgy of Patriarch John bar Madani (d. 1264); 65) the liturgy of the Maphrian Gregorius bar Habraeus (d. 1286); 20 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences 66) the liturgy of Dioscorus Gabriel, bishop of the Jazira (d. 1300); 67) the liturgy of Patriarch Ignatius bar Wuhayb (d. 1333); 68) the liturgy of Cyril Simon al-Alini, bishop of Hah (d. 1333); 69) the liturgy of Bishop John Butahi (fourteenth century); 70) the liturgy ofjoseph bar Gharib, bishop of Ainid (d. 1375); 71) the liturgy of Patriarch Ibrahim bar Gharib (d. 1412); 72) the liturgy of Patriarch Bahnam of Hidl (d. 1454); 73) the liturgy of Qawma, patriarch ofTur Abdin (d. 1454); 74) the liturgy of John Gurgis (George), bishop of the Monastery of Qartamin (d. 1495), compiled from liturgies composed by writers with the name ofjohn; he may have written a special liturgy which has been lost to us; 75) another liturgy compiled by the same man from other liturgies each one written by writers named Jacob; 76) the liturgy of Masud II of Zaz, patriarch ofTur Abdin (d. 1512); 77) another liturgy by him lost to us; 78) a third liturgy by him, also lost to us; 79) the liturgy of Basilius Abd al-Ghani I, al-Mansuri, maphrian of the East (d. 1575). Some later scholars have ascribed additional litur- gies, aboutwhich we are uninformed, to Severus Sabukli t, bishop of Qinnesrin (d. 665), Severus Jacob, bishop of St. Matthew’s Monastery and Azerbayjan (d. 1241),and bar Qinayawho is probablyjacob of Hattakh (d. 1360). Some liturgies were written in Greek and then trans- lated into Syriac, probably by Thomas of Harqal (Heraclea), including the liturgies of Dionysius the Areopagite, Ignatius the Illuminator, Cyril of Jerusa- lem, Gregory Nazianzen, and Timothy of Alexandria; and the liturgy of Severus of Samosata was translated by Ibrahim of Amid in 598. No doubt the liturgies of Eustathius, the Caesarian, Athanasius, Chrysostom, Cyril, Proclus, Dioscorus of Alexandria, and Severus of Antioch were written in Greek, but their translators are un- known. Of these liturgies two, belonging to Thomas of Harqal and Michael the Great, as well as the closing prayer of the liturgy of Basilius Abd al-Ghani, were alphabetically arranged. Other liturgies were prescribed for special feasts and special ceremonies. In the introduction to the liturgy of Gregorius Jacob, maphrian of the East, we find a com- mentary by his uncle. Patriarch Michael, confirming it and permitting its celebration. Some of these liturgies were erroneously ascribed to different authors, due to the negligence of the transcribers. For example, the liturgy which opens with”Eternal and compassionate God” was attributed to Gregorius of BartuIIi, bishop of St. Matthew’s Monastery, while some copyists ascribed it to Bar Hebraeus. Renaudot 6 erroneously mentions that the liturgy of Bar Hebraeus begins with “O God, Lord of Hosts,” and that the liturgy compiled by John bar Wahbun begins with “Almighty God, whois beyondcomprehension.”In another copy this same liturgy begins with “Almighty and Gracious God.” Similar mistakes occur in the litur- gies of Philoxenus of Mabug, Simon of Beth Arsham, and Patriarch Lazarus bar Sobto. However, a liturgical copy in Tur Abdin ascribes one of the liturgies of Philoxenus of Mabug to his nephew Philexene, nick- named “the Young,” bishop of Duluk, who adopted the doctrine of Chalcedon. There is no evidence that Philexene has written a liturgy. The style of liturgies, although simple, is difficult to imitate. It combines lucidity of expression with profun- dity of meaning. The liturgy is written with elegance, skill, and unsurpassed sweetness which induce the hear- ers’ awe and submission, bind their hearts with divine matter, and arrest their attention throughout the cel- ebration of the Holy Eucharist. Further, it induces them to contemplate the wonders of this divine mystery and then leave the Houses of God with abundant love. The authors of these liturgies should therefore be recog- nized for their excellence. The celebration of the liturgy is preceded by a husoyo (propitiatory prayer) , which is recited before the Creed of Faith, and known as the “ Sedra of Entry;” 7 of these prayers we have about thirty. The Vatican MS. 25 con- tains fifteen sedras or expiatory prayers; among their authors are the Patriarchjohn III, of the Sedras, 8 Patri- archAthanasius (mostprobablyAthanasiusII ofBalad), Jacob of Edessa, John bar Shushan, Jacob bar Salibi, Thomas the Stylite, Gabriel of BartuIIi, Cyril of Hah, Qawma, patriarch ofTur Abdin, and Yeshu of Basibrina. 9 The liturgy ends with a dismissory hymn, usually a verse chosen from among eight hymns of the twelve- syllable or the seven-syllable meter, composed by Bar Madani, Gabriel of BartuIIi, Bahnam of Hidl, the priests Hasan of Mosul and Isa aljazri, the monks David of Hims, Abdo of Hah, and Gregorius, bishop of Jerusa- lem. The dismissory hymn was used, as we believe, in the middle of the thirteenth century. In a Beth Gaz (The treasure of church melodies) in Mardin transcribed in the sixteenth century, we find the dismissory hymn precedes the Benediction of the priest, which begins with “Departye in peace,” and contains the intercession of saints. The celebration of the liturgy is preceded by silent prayers recited by the priest during the Mass, particu- larly the prayer for breaking the bread, written byjacob bar Salibi, followed by four supplicatory verses by Mar Jacob. A part of the liturgy are the prayers recited by the serving deacon and the group of the clergy which begins with a manith (hymn), by Severus of Antioch, based on the tradition ofMelitene. Of interest in this 21 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences regard are the six Intercessions, or commemorations of both the living and the dead. These Intercessions are of three or four types, long and short The long one is known as the Eastern Intercession, being used by the Eastern Church, which was under the jurisdiction of the See ofTakrit. 10 The fifth intercession, that of the Church fathers and doctors, is usually recited by two deacons, only during Lent, as has been the custom in the Church of Mosul and its neighboring churches until today. This intercession, unknown to other churches outside the vicinity of Mosul, contains the names of the majority of the doctors of the Church and the Maphrians of Takrit, from Ahudemeh to Saliba I (d. 1231). In some manu- scripts this intercession contains the name of the illus- trious Maphrian Gregorius Bar Hebraeus (d. 1286) and, interspread with it, the names of a group of eastern bishops and saindy hermits, giving in lengthy or brief details an elegant description of their virtues, character, and great deeds. However, this intercession is not free from verbosity. In a Beth Gaz, transcribed in 1569 and preserved in our library, we found an Eastern intercession unknown to us before, which differs completely from the rest of the intercessions. Evidendy it is old and has been ne- glected for ages. We also have a few verses chanted on the Sundays of Lent before the prayer of Peace, which may be the composition of Bar Salibi. The fathers of the Church have also selected a public hymn called the “Catholic,” usually sung during the breaking of the sacrificial bread. Not very long ago, these hymns were substituted for Arabic hymns, which are better under- stood by the congregation; some of these are to be found among the hymns sung in answer to the conclud- ing prayer in the long service book, which we published in Dayr al-Zafaran (1912). Most of these Arabic hymns are of our composition. To the liturgy is added a long prayer for the sick and the afflicted, recited shordy before the end of the Mass. Because it is seldom used today, this prayer has been replaced by a short supplication in Arabic. In 1716 Renaudot published thirty-seven liturgies translated into Latin, beginning with the liturgy of St. James and ending with the liturgy of Bar Wuhayb. In 1939 Codrington republished the liturgy of Severus of Antioch, and in 1897, the Chore piscopus Matta Konat of Malabar published seven liturgies, while his son the priest Ibrahim published eighteen others in 1931. 11 The firstknown liturgy in Arabic dates back to 912. In this regard Abu Nasr Yahya ibn Jarir of Takrit, the Syrian, in his book al-Murshid (Chapter 54) , states that, “In that year the Metropolitan of Takrit invested with the episcopate a pious man from the Christian Arabs, who celebrated for them the Eucharist in Arabic.” Other efforts to translate the liturgy into Arabic began in and after the seventeenth century, although these translations were written in Garshuni (Arabic written in Syriac Script) and in imperfectlanguage. A fair number of liturgies were translated into mediocre Arabic by the Chorepiscopus Elias of Mosul before his death in 1907. We ourselves translated eight liturgies and five husoyos (propitiatory prayers) in 1910. SECTION FIVE Service Books For Sundays For The Whole Year The services contained in these books extend from the Sunday of the Consecration of the Church, at the end of October or the beginning of November, until the Sunday immediately preceding the Nativity of our Lord. They comprise eigh t orders, followed by five or six more services for the Sundays immediately following the Epiphany; interposed between these two groupings are the prayers for the Sunday following the Nativity of our Lord and two other Sundays, devoted to the commemo- ration of priests and the dead. All of these services are contained in one volume. The second volume contains the services of the twenty-four Sundays from the Sunday of the Resurrection to the Sunday of the Festival of the Cross. These are preceded by six services for the Week of the White 1 immediately following Easter Sunday, in commemoration of the Resurrection. The third volume contains eight general services in commemoration of the works of our Lord, in praise of the Holy Virgin and the saints, and in commemoration of the dead. These services are recited on the Sundays following the Festi- val of the Cross, up to the Sunday of the Consecration of the Church. These service books were methodically compiled and arranged by St. Jacob of Edessa (d. 708). According to many old manuscripts, written on parchment in the Estrangelo script and dating back to the period from the ninth century to the thirteenth, Jacob of Edessa wrote eight orders for the Sundays following the Resur- rection; their cycle was to be repeated three times. In the fifteenth century, however, they were supplemented by sixteen more services, selected from the collection of chorals and hymns. A single service consists of the prayers of the vespers, the nocturnes, the mourning prayer, and the prayer at the third hour. The nocturnal prayer is celebrated at two times, during which hymns selected from St. Ephraim and others are chanted and sometimes interspersed with some supplicatory hymns by Rabula, metropolitan of Edessa. Traditionally the Syrians had two distinct orders, or rites: the Western rite, which was universal in the dio- ceses under the direct jurisdiction of the Patriarchal See; and the Eastern, which was used by the dioceses under thejurisdiction of the Maphrianate See ofTakrit. The first was compiled according to the traditions of Antioch, Edessa, the famous Monastery of Qinnesrin, and Melitene; the second, according to the tradition of Seleucia-Ctesiphon and Takrit. The Western order is 22 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences characterized by brevity and by prose songs, called the “Greek Canons,” used at every Sunday and festival, and chanted according to eight melodies. They were written by Jacob of Edessa, Andrew, bishop of Crete (d. 700), Cosmas, and John of Damascus (d. 750). The latter three are Greeks whose hymns were translated by the Syrians into their language because, according to Lazarus bar Sobto, bishop of Baghdad, as quoted by Bar Hebraeus in his Ethikon (part 5, chapter 4, p. 66), “they were confined to general description of the acts of Christ our Lord and avoided the theological arguments among the Christian sects.” Manuscript 149 of Zafaran men- tions that this translation was done in Edessa and was named for that city. To this translation some of our Doctors added hymns similar to those composed by former authors; which were called the “Syrian Canons,” among which are the eight traditional canons and others written in commemoration of St. Severus. The Eastern rite, which is universally used in Iraq, is marked by its lengthiness, the use of a great number of Psalms, the madrashes (metrical hymns), and the prose hymns of St. Severus, which are chanted particularly at the festivals of the Nativity of our Lord and the Resurrec- tion. According tojacob of Bartulli 2 the service book of this rite was commonly known as the “Book ofHudhro,” 3 into which the monk David bar Paul inserted maniths (prose hymns) around 780 A. D. In a commentary note at the beginning of his letters, Bar Paul states, “when David and his disciple Zacharias returned toDayr (Mon- astery) of Khanushia from the land of the West (west of the Euphrates), he carried with him one hundred and seven ty church hymns, composed by Mar Severus, which were unknown in the lands of the East. He also intro- duced to these lands different canons and collecdons, to be chanted daily at the close of the nocturnal service. He also added a psalm and the Lord’s Prayer to be recited in the morning, noon and night, after ‘Holy thou art God.’” These prayers were introduced in the year 1090 (of the Greek calendar, which is 780 A.D.) and after. It is our assumption that the compilation of Eastern rites, whose authors we do not know, began in the early part of the seventh century and continued to the middle of the twelfth century. Many authors apparently con- tributed to its composition until it assumed its present form. However, we are informed about those who estab- lished and organized it. They are: 1) Malphan (doctor) Sabroy, the great-grandfather of David bar Paul (ca. 630 A.D.) and his two sons, Ram Yeshu and Gabriel, who wrote the Basilica, 4 (anthems) and the canticles for both choirs for Palm Sunday and the Passion Week. They also wrote a service book which had been used in the towns specifically, in order to undermine the conceitedness of the Nestorians, as Sabroy himself states in his letter to Bishop Yuhanna on the diacritical points which occur in the Holy Scrip- tures. 2) Denha III of Harran, the maphrian of the East (912-932) . He was described in the commemoration of the Eastern Fathers as the author of qalas metrical (hymns), and was well-versed in church music. 3) Basilius IV, bar QubadofTakrit (1046-1069), who was an author of qalas (metrical hymns) and church canons. 5 Many copies of service books have survived. They were mostly written from the ninth to the thirteenth centuries in an elegant Estrangelo script, on vellum or paper. They are preserved in the libraries of London, Paris and Boston (see earlier note) aswellas the churches of Diyarbakr, Inhil, Amas, Meddo and Basibrina in Tur Abdin, the Zafaran Monastery, the Monastery of St. Mark’s in Jerusalem, Edessa, and Mosul. Other manu- scripts in the western script, written from the thirteenth century to the present, are preserved in the libraries of Berlin, Egypt, Diyarbakr, the Monastery of St. Matthew (Mar Matta), St. Mark’s Monastery in Jerusalem, the churches of Mosul and Qaraqosh, Mardin, Aleppo, Damascus, Beirut, Hisn Kifa, Meddo, Basibrina, Hims, Sadad, our Patriarchate’s library, and other places. In 1911 we were granted the opportunity to look through most of these manuscripts in the monasteries and churches ofTur Abdin. We have no information, though, of what was lost from these manuscripts during the last war and what remained. The service book used in the winter season is fol- lowed by the order of the three days’ fasting of Nineveh. At one time this fast was observed for five days in the lands of the East, as has been mentioned in a copy at the library of the Church of the Virgin (al-Tahira) in Mosul, transcribed by the priest Joseph Khamis of Sinjar in 1269, and in the copy at St. Matthew’s Monastery, transcribed by Abu al-Faraj ibn Mansur in 1241. These two copies also contain the orders for the commemora- tion of priests, the strangers, and the dead, on the Fridays in the three weeks preceding Lent; these orders belong exclusively to the Eastern rite. SECTION SIX The Service Book of Principal Feasts and The Festivals of Saints This volume comprises the principal feasts of the Nativity of our Lord, the Circumcision, the Baptism, the Presentation of our Lord in the Temple, Palm Sunday, the Resurrection, the Ascension, the Pentecost, the Transfiguration, and the Festival of the Cross. Included also are the seven feasts of the Virgin, i.e., the Annunciation of the Virgin, the Hailing of Mary at our Lord’s birth, our Lady of the Sowing, our Lady of the Harvest, the festival of the first church built in Athrib (Yathrib), named after the Virgin, the Nativity of 23 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences the Virgin Mary, her Entrance into the Temple, and her Assumption. These are followed by the feasts of the Apostles, saints and male and female martyrs, who are: Mar Addai the Apostle; Mar Abhai the martyr; Mar Sergius and Mar Bacchus; the Maccabees; the martyr Shamuni (Salumi) and her sons, Mar Asya and Mar Isaiah the ascetics; Mar Jacob, the Persian martyr who was cut to pieces; Mar Jacob of Saruj; Barbara the martyr; Mar Zakhi (Nicolas) , bishop of Mira in Greece; Mar Bahnam, his sister Sarah, and his forty martyr companions; Mar Gabriel, bishop of Qartamin; Mar Samuel and Mar Simon the ascetics; the Infants of Bethlehem and John the Baptist; Mar Stephen, the protomartyr and head of the deacons; Mar Antonius; Barsoumand Aaron the ascetics; Mar Severus of Antioch; Mar Ephraim, the Doctor of the Church; Theodorus, the martyr of Ephchacta; Mar Habib, the deacon martyr; Abgar, the King of Edessa; the Elevation of the Cross; the forty Martyrs of Sebaste (Sivas); Mar George the martyr; St.John the Evangelist; Marjacob of Nisibin; Mar Ottel the Ascetic; Saints Peter and Paul, the chief Apostles; the Twelve Apostles and St. Thomas the evangelist; Anba Karas the ascetic; Mar Cyriacus and his mother Julitta, and their companions; the martyrs, the ascetic Mar Malke, Mar Julian, Mar Matta and Mar Musa the Abyssinian; Cosmas and Demyan the martyrs; the prophet Elijah and Mar Zayna the martyr, bishop of Baremman; Mar Ahudemeh, metropolitan of the East; the Golden Friday, in commemoration of the miracles of the Apostles Peter and Paul; Daniel the ascetic; Yuhanna (John) bar Najjarin and his martyred sister, Mar Qawma the stylite ascetic, and the two ascetic brothers Mar Ibrahim and Mar Marun, 1 Febronia the martyr nun; Mar Simon the Stylite; the martyrs Agripas and Lubernitus and their companions; the martyr monks Shamunaand Guiryya (Gabriel); Romanus the martyr; the Egyptian ascetics; the Persian confessor Mar Demet; Mar Abhai the ascetic bishop; the prophets; one of the saints, one of the martyrs and one of the ascetics. Needless to say, some of these saints are commemo- rated in their native countries or in the countries where they lived an ascetic life. 2 SECTION SEVEN Sendee Books of The Lent and Passion Week The first service book contains the daily prayers of Lent, beginning from the evening of the first Sunday of Lent, 1 (Bermun) known as the Sunday of Cana of Galilee to the seventh Sunday which is the Palm Sunday. At present the Lent prayers are recited three times, in the morning, at noon, and in the evening, except on Saturdays and Sundays. The second service book contains the prayers of Passion Week, from Monday night until the ninth hour of the Great Saturday of Annunciation. It is a large book, different from other service books by virtue of its great length and itsdifferent madrashes (metrical hymns), especially those prescribed for the two nocturnal ser- vices. On the day of Maunday Thursday and the Friday of the Passion (Friday of the Crucifixion ) , the nocturnal prayer consists of four or five services. This service book is distinguished for its supplicatory verses, absolutely eloquent and elaborate, usually chanted with touching tunes, especially the madrashsung on the tune “Rise up, O Paul,” composed by Jacob of Edessa. Similar songs of passion also came from the pen of this same erudite man. During Lent, according to the Eastern rite, and after each service in Passion Week, a discourse or homily by either St. Ephraim, Jacob of Saruj, or Chrysostom is delivered. These homilies of Chrysostom are undoubt- edly translated from his collection of homilies of the Father of the Church. The consecration of the Holy Chrism also contains an eloquent song by Lazarus bar Sobto, metropolitan of Baghdad; however, the recita- tion of this song was supererogatory. 2 This rite also includes a medium-sized book containing eight services of the Christmas Fasting, known to Easterners as the Subbar, i.e., the Annunciation of the Nativity of the Lord Christ. These services are usually repeated three times. We have found three copies of these services; one in the Church of the Forty Martyrs in Mardin, where they were used for a long time around 1 700, the second in Jerusa- lem (transcribed in 1675), and the third in the Monas- tery of St. Elias (Elijah) at the village of Hbab in Tur Abdin. SECTION EIGHT Husoys (Propitiatory Prayers) For Sundays, Feasts, Lent and Passion Week, and Other Occasions The Husoyos are propitiatory prayers in prose form recited in certain times. They are of two parts: the proemium, or the introductory prayer, usually brief; and the Sedro, which contains the text of the prayer and is usually longer than the proemium. The propitiatory prayer, whether recited in the morning or evening, is preceded by an introductory prayer and followed by the prayer of the incense. Frequently, the Sedro is recited jointly with a concluding prayer a usage by which the Orthodox Church has exclusively distinguished itself. The propitiatory prayer, recited by the priests in their particular times and days, contains praise to God, who bestowed upon man the grace of existence and salvation. It also contains a description of Christ’s be- neficence and love toward mankind, which He saved from eternal damnation and brought to the light of truth after it had been in darkness. The priest usually 24 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences concludes this prayer by asking the forgiveness of the sins of the people, and imploring God to keep the shepherds of the church, the priests, the deacons, and the different categories of believers, to save them from afflictions and grant them and their dead, who slept in the hope of the faith and the resurrection, His abun- dant mercies. In the husoyos prescribed for principal feasts, the authors describe the holy Sacraments in which they were performed, and which led to the glorification of these feasts. They frequently elaborated on the Ortho- dox doctrines, such as the principles of the belief in the Trinity and monotheism, the two Sacraments of the Incarnation and Redemption, and the Sacraments of the church and their noble symbols, in order that these might become firmly established in the minds of the worshippers. In the days of fasting, the authors of these expiatory prayers exhort the believers to live up to the principle of fasting by comporting themselves in a manner free from sin, while holding fast to repentance. In the festivals of Saints, they commemorate their struggles, praise their virtues, and ask for their interces- sion. In commemorating the dead, they ask for their forgiveness and mercy. Finally, in the administration of the Sacraments of the church, the authors confine themselves to the description of the Sacraments and the discussion of related matters. This type of prayerwas contrived in the last decade of the seventh century byjohn III, patriarch of Antioch, known as John of the Sedras (after the second part of the husoyo\. Soon this prayer spread tremendously; while in the beginning there were one or two husoyos for special occasions, or for undesignated times, they were gradually increased until there were as many as five for only one Sunday or feast. Apparently church scholars followed the lead of the patriarch in composing these prayers. Husoyos were appointed as follows: one for Sunday evening, two for the first and second nocturnal services, one for the morning service, and the last for the third-hour prayer. In the church of Tur Abdin we found precious old copies of husoyos^ with the names of their thirty-seven authors affixed on the margin. These authors are of three categories: the excellent, the me- diocre, and the bad. The first category includes: 1) John, patriarch of Antioch (d. 648); 2) Marutha, maphrian of Takrit (d. 649); 3) Severus II, patriarch of Antioch (d. 683); 4) Athanasius II, patriarch of Antioch (d. 686); 5) Severus bar Kifa, metropolitan of Baremman (d. 903); 6) Athanasius, bishop of Qallisura (d. 983); 7) Patriarchjohn Xbar Shushan (d. 1072); 8) Said bar Sabuni, metropolitan of Melitene (d. 1095); 9) Dionysius bar Modyana, metropolitan ofMelitene (d. 1120); 10) Jacob bar Salibi, metropolitan of Amid (d. 1171); 11) Michael the Great, patriarch of Antioch (d. 1199); 12) Ibrahim, metropolitan of Amid, Edessa and Talbsam (d. 1207); 13) Basilius III or IV, metropolitan of Qartamin (d. 1254); 14) John bar Madani, patriarch of Antioch (d. 1263); 15) The ascetic monk Abu Nasr of Bartulli (d. 1290). The authors of this category wrote most of the husoyos mentioned in the oldest manuscripts. Abu Nasr was distinguished for being the author of ninety four husoyos. However, quite a large number of these husoyos are of unknown authorship. The second category comprises: 1) Gabriel of Bartulli, metropolitan of thejazira (d. 1300); 2) The monk Yeshu bar Khayrun (d. 1335); 3) The monk Saliba bar Khayrun (d. 1340); 4) Tuma (Thomas) of Ilah, the stylite ascetic; 5) Metropolitan Abu al-Wafa of Hisn Kifa; 6) Yusuf (Joseph) bar Gharib, metropolitan of Amid (d. 1360); 7) Patriarch Ibrahim bar Gharib (d. 1412); 8) The priest Isaiah of Basibrina (d. 1425); 9) The priest Simon of Amid (d. 1452); 10) Patriarch Bahnam of Hidl (d, 1454); 11) The monkMalke Saqo (d. 1490); 12) The monk Yeshu of Basibrina (d. 1490); 13) The priest Addai of Basibrina (d. 1502); 14) The monk David of Hims (d. 1500); 15) Metropolitan Sergius of Hah (d. 1508); 16) Yusuf (Joseph) the Iberian, metropolitan of Jerusalem. The third category includes: 1) Aziz of Faf (d. 1473); 2) Patriarch Masud of Zaz (d. 1512); 3) Bishop Simon (?); 4) Yusuf (Joseph) ofHbab (?); 5) John ofMardin, metropolitan of Jerusalem (d. 1577); 6) The chorepiscopus Jacob of Qutrubul (d. 1783). Some of these authors composed only one or two husoyos; on the other hand, some of the husoyos were mistakenly ascribed to the priest Samuel (the disciple of St. Barsoum) Jacob of Saruj, Philoxenus of Mabug, and John bar Aphtonya. The husoyos comprise six volumes, five of which are very large books containing about six hundred and fifty husoyos. The first volume, the service book for winter, includes the period from the Sunday of the Consecra- tion of the Church - which is also the first day of the church year - to the Sunday of the Dead. The second volume consists of the husoyos of Lent, up to Palm Sunday. The third volume contains the husoyos for Passion Week, from Monday night until the ninth hour of the Saturday of Annunciation. It also includes a 25 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences husoyo for each service of the five days of Passion Week, and four for the evening of the Friday of Crucifixion (Good Friday) . The fourth volume, which is the service book for the summer, includes the husoyosoi the twenty- four Sundays of the Resurrection, beginning with the daily husoyos of the week immediately following the great Sunday of Easter. The fifth volume is set aside for major feasts, as well as the festivals of the Virgin Mary, the Martyrs, and the Saints. The sixth volume contains eight husoyos for remembering the Dispensation of our Lord Christ in general, known as the mdabronuth. The Ishhim (Service book for regular week-days) also con- tains seven brief husoyos recited between the services. Another small book in the church of Mosul contains brief daily husoyos, privately recited on certain days of the week for the commemoration of the Virgin, the cross, the saints, the martyrs, and for repentance for the priests and the dead. Other orders of the mysteries have special husoyos whose authors are unknown to us. The style of the majority of the husoyos, particularly those written by authors of the first category, is lucid and eloquent Other husoyos^ especially those written specifi- cally for the Holy Mass byjohn of the Sedras, Athanasius II, and Jacob of Edessa, are distinguished by their remarkable style, richness of meaning, and beautiful and smooth phrasing, which arrests the heart. To these should be added the husoyos by Moses bar Ki fa, John bar Shushan, Athanasius of Qallisura, Said bar Sabuni, and Abu Nasr of Bartulli. The husoyos of Bar Sabuni reveal his profound knowledge of the language and profi- ciency in philosophy, which appear vividly in his style. His mastery of eloquent expression enables him to subjugate the language to his own whim. If it were not for the few Greek expressions which he uses in imitation of the philosopher’s method, one might conclude that he is among the most famous masters of styles. Likewise, the style of Abu Nasr attests to his rich subject matter, writing ability, and literary artistic elegance. Quite different is the style of the authors from the second category, despite their smoothness, clarity and eloquence. The fault of some of these authors, like Abu al-Wafa, Yeshu of Basibrina, and Joseph the Iberian, is their love of foreign terminologies, which evidently made their style stilted. Another fluent writer for whom the language became pliable wasjoseph bar Gharib. His counterpart. Patriarch Bahnam of Hidl, had the same literary qualities except for the few Greek expressions he used. As for the remaining authors, their style was marked by mediocrity. Jacob of Qutrubul, for example, exaggerated the use of forced style and poor rhymed prose in the five husoyos he wrote in commemoration of Malke the ascetic. The copy containing these husoyos was consigned to a church in Amid and was neglected. Other authors of husoyos forced the style of supplicatory prayers and made them alphabetical forward and back- ward, while some others inserted in them rhymed phrases whose combinations of letters indicate their names. No small number of husoyoswere composed and used in the author’s native land or the land neighboring it, especially the husoyos of the later authors of Tur Abdin. These writers were fascinated by the description of the life stories of the known ascetics and martyrs in their country. The husoyos of the priest Simon of Amid were never used, but remained in the copy in his own hand- writing. In the library of Boston, in the United States, we found a volume (MS. 4031) 1 containing husoyos for the period from the Sunday of the consecration of the Church to the Festival of the Cross, written in a thick, elegant Estrangelo script. The number of these is com- plete and corresponds with the five services of worship. This MS. was completed in the tenth or eleventh cen- tury, but apparently did not come into widespread use in the East. Therefore, Abu Nasr of Bartulli wrote most of the husoyos, for the nocturnal and third-hour services and raised the number of the services of worship to seven. These husoyos were contained by all the copies which we have read in the churches of Iraq,Jazira, and others. The oldest copy of the husoyos is the Paris MS. 70, called the Service Book of Priests. Completed in 1059, it is a very small book, written in beautiful Estrangelo script; it consists of three liturgies as well as husoyos for the whole year, followed by preliminary supplicatory prayers. In the British Museum the ancient MS. 14494 contains some husoyos 4 incense prayers, and supplica- tions recited between the parts of the Psalms. Some of these prayers were alphabetically arranged, while oth- ers were written by Cyriacus, metropolitan of Talla at the end of the sixth century. Thejerusalem MS. 55 (St. Mark’s Monastery) contains a Sacerdotal written on paper in a good Estrangelo script by the priest Said Shamli, the son of priest Yuhanna (John) of Hisn Ziyad, in 1171. This Sacerdotal contains random husoyos for Epiphany and the Sundays thereafter, Lent, Passion Week, the Resurrection, the Ascension, Pentecost, the mdabronuth or Dispensation of our Lord, the Apostles, Saints, the Assumption of the Virgin, festivals of some Saints, namely St. John, St. Gurgis (George) and St. Barsoum and others. It also contains diverse supplica- tory prayers, recited before or after the husoyos, or between the marmiths or psalms, as well as husoyos for fasting, written in a Western script. The Paris MS. 167 contains a volume of husoyos in the handwriting of Patriarch Michael the Great, dated 1190, for use from the festival of the consecration of the church to the Pentecost, interspersed with the festivals of the Virgin, the Apostles, the Doctors, and the Martyrs. It contains copious prayers including groups of one, two or three husoyos for some festival days and Sundays, a few other husoyos for Lent, and one husoyo for each day of Passion Week except Good Friday, which has three. These husoyos differ sharply in the number of their introduc- tory prayers and texts, and have only one Sedra for the dispensation of our Lord and repentance, in addition 26 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences to the compline and vespers prayers. In the Monastery of the Cross, near the village of Defna in Tur Abdin, we found a manuscript (tran- scribed in 1555) containing onehundred seven ty husoyos. Other manuscript in the village of Meddo, transcribed between 1460 and 1480, contains three hundred and seven husoyos which fill four thousand medium-sized pages. Indeed, this volume is a great literary treasure which, because of its style, has a considerable place in Syriac literature. Moreover, when the Arabic language spread through- out the lands of the Syrians and supplan ted Syriac, some of the later authors (from the end of the fifteenth century onwards) were forced to translate the majority of husoyos into Arabic. Thus a monk, David of Hims, translated some of them, sometimes well and some- times in a mediocre style. Those who followed, espe- cially in the eighteenth century, rendered the husoyos in very imperfect, poor Arabic and even distorted their meanings. SECTION NINE The Orders of Baptism, The Benediction of Marriage, The Holy Unction and of Repentence The Syrian Church has a service book containing prayers for the order of the Sacrament of Baptism. This order has two forms, one for the baptism of boys, and the other for girls. Some prayers of this order are ascribed to the Saints Clemis and Dionysius the Areopagite, and others to St. Severus of Antioch. Our long service book mentions that these prayers were based on the order of Baptism by Severus of Antioch, translated from the Greek by Jacob of Edessa. This has also been confirmed by John of Dara, Moses Bar Kifa, Bar Salibi, and Bar Hebraeus. An old manuscript in the British Museum shows that the Order of Baptism of Severus was translated (from Greek) by Paul, metro- politan of Talla. 1 It contains two services, one for the neophyte, and the other for the baptized. We have another short order recited during the child’s sickness and an even shorter one, probably not more than two pages, written by either Philoxenus of Mabug or Severus of Antioch, for baptizing the very seriously ill child. In manuscript 17128 of the British Museum we found an Order of Baptism by Timothy of Alexandria (457-477). The Jerusalem manuscript 127 contains a short order of about ten pages, written by Patriarch John bar Shushan and used in the event of imminent death. A manuscript in the Zafaran Monas- tery contains an exposition by Severus of Antioch of the order of Baptism in three pages. The Church of Mosul has a special short order, different from the Western order, and undoubtedly was written by the Eastern fathers. I have also seen in the village of Bartulli an order abridged by a maphrian, most likely Bar Hebraeus. The order for the Benediction of Marriage and the cer- emony of coronation, which had been compiled, ar- ranged and revised by St. Jacob of Edessa and other doctors of the Church, 2 contains two services; the first is the betrothal prayer, or the Benediction of the wedding ring; the second is the Benediction of Marriage. This order is followed by another special order for the marriage of a widowed spouse. At the close of the fourteenth century, the priest Isaiah of Basibrina made this order separate from that for persons previously unmarried; the commentary which he wrote on it has since been incorporated into the introduction to this rite. A rather long order of marriage, different from our Western order, is used in Mosul and its neighboring churches. The mystery of unction, administered to the sick and the penitentwho demand it, has an order consisting of five services concerning forgiveness and repentance, recited by the priest over the oil used for anointing the sick. Another short order, comprising a husoyo (propi- tiatory prayer), one lesson from the Gospels, and a few verses of prayers recited over the sick, is still preserved in the village of Hafar. We also have a general order recited during the confession of sins. After the penitent has confessed his sins to the bishop or priest and listened to his advice, he kneels down with his hands crossed, while the priest recites the order which consists of the unyana (an- them), husoyo (propitiatory prayer), and Qala (hymn), scriptural lessons and a bouth, a supplicatory prayer. Then the priest exhorts the confessor to repeat the canon of confession, after which, while placing his hand on the head of the confessor, he recites the prayer of absolution and forgiveness. An ancient copy of this order is preserved in the Vatican MS. 5 1 , transcribed by the monk Abu al-Faraj of Amid from the copy which had been arranged and vocalized by Patriarch Michael the Great. Another copy is extant in Amid. This order, however, ceased to be used some time ago because of its length, and was replaced by the short prayer of absolu- tion. SECTION TEN Order of The Offices of Ordination and The Administration of Sacraments by The Clergy This huge service book contains: 1 ) The prayers of the various offices of ordination for low and high church ranks, such as the offices of psaltis or singer, anagnostes or reader, hypodiaconus or subdeacon, deacon, archdeacon, priest, chorepiscopus, abbot, periodeutes or visitor, bishop, metropolitan, maphrian or catholicos, and Patriarch, as well as the 27 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences order for assuming monastic habit of monks and nuns, according to the tradition of the holy moun- tain of Edessa, as is mentioned by the two manu- scripts in Jerusalem and Paris, 1 whose canons were enacted by Metropolitan John Said bar Sabuni.* It also contains the Benediction for deacons, abbots and church stewards. 2) The order for consecration of churches, new altars, and tablets for the altar. 3) The order for consecration of baptismal oil and unction. This order has two versions, the long and the short; an old copy of the shortversion is preserved in our library (at Hims) . 4) The order for consecration of the Sacrament of the Holy Chrism, which is the exclusive right of the Patriarch of Antioch. 5) Prayers for the penitents and heretics who rejoin the Orthodox Church. To these later was added the order by which the ascetics assume the Leather Habit, translated from the Ethiopian language into Syriac and revised by Joseph the Iberian, metropolitan of Jerusa- lem (d. 1537). 6) The order for installing a new bishop.* Ordinations are preceded by instructions for the elect priests and deacons, according to which the or- dained states that he will follow the teachings of the fathers and doctors of the catholic church and obey the Patriarch of Antioch and the metropolitan of his dio- cese, and renounces the heretics and dissenters, enu- merating them one by one from the Apostolic era to the ninth century. This statement of creed has two versions: a long one comprising ten pages, of which two copies, written in the beginning of the thirteenth century, are preserved in our library and in the Vatican MS. 51; and a shorter, more commonly used one written byjacob, metropolitan of Miyafarqin in the middle of the tenth century. The new bishop also reads a statement of creed drawn by Patriarch Cyriacus in which he confesses the Church’s creed of faith, pledges allegiance to the doc- tors of the church and excommunicates the heretics, and declares his obedience to the patriarch of Antioch. The copy of this order was completed in 806. 4 At the same time, the patriarch provides the new bishop with a statement called Sostatikon, or the diploma of investi- ture, in which he invests him with episcopal powers to administer his diocese and orders his congregation to obey him. In Meddo, in Tur Abdin, we found the oldest copy of this order, written in the thirteenth century and containing the investiture of Basilius, metropolitan of Khabura, by Ignatius III, patriarch of Antioch in 1231, and signed by John II, Bar Madani, maphrian of the East, and by four bishops. 5 Our copy is a reproduction of this one. Later, however, this diploma of investiture was translated into Arabic; we possess two copies of the translation, completed in 1768 and 1806. To the order of the consecration of the patriarch, Jacob bar Salibi, metropolitan of Amid, added a homily, which he delivered during the ceremony of enthroning Michael the Great (at the close of 1166); another homily on the assumption of the monastic habit by monks and initiates written by Moses bar Kifa, was finished by Bar Salibi. The order of the consecration of the holy Chrism is followed by two anonymous homilies, one of which was recited after the ceremony. This ceremony is also followed by a heptasyllabic discourse chanted by the arch-deacons in praise of the officiating dignitary, and another dodecasyllabic discourse in which the bishop blesses the congregation. A copy of this metrical discourse is extant in MS. 109 in our library at Jerusalem. The oldest manuscript of the office of ordination is the copy of Patriarch Michael the Great, dated 1190.® This illustrious church dignitary was the last to revise and arrange the orders of the offices of ordination, which had been in a state of confusion. His copy is most reliable. Another two copies are extant in our church in the town of Mamurat al-Aziz; one of them was com- pleted in either 1190 or 1200, and the second was transcribed and commented upon by the bishop John David of Amid in 1203. Two other magnificent copies were transcribed by the deacon Abd Allah of Bartulli in 1300, 7 at the request of Gabriel, bishop of thejazira. Two more ancient copies are extant in our Library, together with an elegant copy transcribed by Joseph, metropolitan of Jerusalem, reproduced from the copy of the monk Abu al-Faraj of Amid, the secretary of Patriarch Michael. 8 Another copy, in the handwriting of Patriarch Nuh, dated 1506, is available in the Library at Jerusalem. 9 SECTION ELEVEN Service Book For Principal Feasts The Syrians have a special service book for principal feasts called the madhedhan. It contains the Orders for the Nativity of our Lord, the Order for the consecration of water on the Epiphany, the Order for the Monday of Lent called the Monday of Forgiveness, the Order for the mid-Lent Festival of the Cross, the Order for the Consecration of Branches on Palm Sunday, the Festival of Lights or the Night of Entrance into the Heavenly Chamber, the Order for the Washing of Feet on the Thursday of Passion Week, the Burial Service of the Cross on Good Friday, 1 the Order for Peace on Easter morning, the Order for the Adoration of the Cross on Pentecost, and the Order for the Benediction of the Cross. The Eastern rite contains hymns chanted in the festivals commemorating Simon the Aged and the Pre- sentation of our Lord in the Temple. The Beth Gaz (Treasure of Melodies) of the Ayn Ward, written in 28 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences 1468, mentions the Benediction of the Cross according to the custom of the Church of the Forty Martyrs in Mardin. Also, the service book of the principal feasts of the Monastery of Mar Awgayn (Eugene) contains the Benediction of the Cross used in the festivals of the Virgin and the saints. The Beth Gazoi thejerusalem Library (MS. 62, dated 1569), mentions that the order for the consecration of water (on Epiphany day) was written by Severus, patri- arch of Antioch, but revised and vocalized by Jacob of Edessa. According tojacob of Edessa, the first prayer for the consecration of water in the festival of the Epiphany, beginning “Great thou art O Lord and wonderful are thy works,” was composed by Proclus, bishop of a dio- cese of Cyprus. And when St. Epiphanius, metropolitan of Cyprus, read this prayer in 404 A.D., he admired it and expanded it. This prayer exists in the Byzantine rite because its author, St. Proclus, lived in the middle of the fourth century, notin the seventh, as Lucian has errone- ously stated in his book The Christian Orient. Although the old British Museum manuscript 14494, written on vellum, mentions that the author of the consecration of water on the Epiphany was Proclus of Constantinople (d. 444), yet the testimony here about Jacob of Edessa is more thorough and accurate. 2 In his comment on the service book of principal feasts in Bartulli, on January 30, 1282, Bar Hebraeus states that in the Eastern rite the deacon recites, at the consecration of water, the prayer for the descent of the Holy Ghost. He was annoyed, and for eighteen years kept patient, until the clergy convinced of their error, agreed to follow the Western rite in this case. 3 In an old copy (of this service book) in the handwrit- ing of deacon Dawud (David) Yusuf al-Misri (the Egyp- tian) , dated 1403, we are informed that Said bar Sabuni, metropolitan of Melitene, compiled an Order for the consecration of Branches on Palm Sunday and that he corrected and vocalized the Order of the Adoration of the Pentecost. 4 What should be noted here is that the traditions and customs of performing the rituals and prayers differed in the countries of the Syrians. The practiced customs were called traditions or perhaps better still “Orders.” The most important of these were the Order of Edessa, the Order of the Monastery of Qinnesrin, the Order of Malatya (Melitene), the Order of the Monastery of Mar Barsoum, and the Order of the East practised in Takrit and Mosul, the Order of Mardin and the Monastery of Mar Hananya, the order of Amid, the order of the Monastery of Qartamin, the order of Tur Abdin, the order of Mesopotamia, the order of the upper Jazira situated on the river Khabur. Also, the Monastery of Mar Abhai, the Monastery ofNatfa (Qatra) were some- times in this regard added to the Monastery of Mar Hananya. In his comment on the Eastern Rite or Order men- tioned once before, Bar Hebraeus states that during his occupation of the See of Takrit he discovered many differences between the Eastern and the Western or- ders. But he found in the arrangement of the Eastern Order with its diverse forms and divisions an arresting beauty which made him admit to the excellence of its authors. He only criticized the specific prayer for the benediction of the water in the Feast of the Epiphany mentioned before. In order to give an idea of the Orders of the principal feasts as well as of the different traditions used in performing the rituals, we should quote the Beth Gaz compiled by Simon, metropolitan of Ayn Ward as an illustration: “To begin with, we have the Order of the Nativity according to the tradition of the Church of Forty Mar- tyrs in Mardin; the Order of the Epiphany revised by Jacob of Edessa and preceded by an explanatory note by George Bishop of the Arabs and followed by a comment of Bar Hebraeus. (This Order has been arranged ac- cording to the tradition of the Monastery of Mar Barsoum, the Monastery of Mar Hananya and the Mon- astery ofNatfa or Strangers as copied from the manu- script of Rabban Saliba Khayrun (al-Shaykh) in 1340 which in turn was transcribed from the copy of Patri- arch Michael the Great) . Then, the Order of the Presen- tation of Our Lord in the Temple according to the tradition of Mardin; the Order of Forgiveness for the Lent; a second Order according to the tradition of Mardin; the Order of the Consecration of Branches transcribed from the copy of Rabban Saliba from the copy of Patriarch Michael the Great; the Order of Lights according to the Edessan tradition; the celebration of the Holy Eucharist on Christmas eve as well as on the evening of Thursday of the Passion Week; the Order of Good Friday (the Crucifixion) according to the tradi- tion of the Forty Martyrs Church in Mardin; a second Order according to the tradition of the Monastery of St. Gabriel in Tur Abdin; the Order of Easter according to the traditions of the Monasteries of Mar Barsoum and Mar Hananya, another order for Easter according to the beautiful established tradition of the Monastery of St. Gabriel.” Simon of Ayn Ward also alluded to an Eastern ritual- istic tradition in the festival of the Ascension according to which the deacon lifts up the paten and the priest the cup during the final elevation of the Mysteries. The custom is still used in Mosul and all of Iraq until this day. SECTION TWELVE Funeral Service Books The Funeral Service Book, or the fanqith order of burials, 1 or the handbook of burials, 2 is of two parts. The first contains the funeral service for deacons, priests, bishops, maphrians and patriarchs. It is comprised of 29 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences eight services, all of which are recited in the funeral of patriarchs, seven for the maphrians, six for the bishops, five for the priests and four for the deacons. This first part was compiled and arranged byjacob of Edessa. But an eloquent and passionate metrical hymn composed byjohn bar Andrew (d. 1156), metropolitan of Mabug, and then ofTur Abdin was added to it in the middle of the twelfth century. The oldest copy of this part is contained in a magnificent vellum manuscript com- pleted in the twelfth century too. 5 Another copy is in London. 4 Attached with it is the order of the Funeral Service of monks, three copies of which are in Boston, St. Matthew’s Monastery and Qaraqosh, respectively. The second part contains the funeral service for laymen, namely children, young men and women, and grown up men and women. Originally it contained one service only, but today it is made up of three services, each one of them special to these groups of laymen. In fact, the above mentioned Boston MS. 5 contains four times of prayers for each one of these services. In an old fourteenth century manuscript in the handwriting of Simon 6 it is mentioned that this second part was com- piled and revised also byjacob of Edessa. The funeral service consists of the chanting of psalms, appropriate lessons from the Holy Bible, the chanting of qalas a.nd madrashes (metrical hymn) as well as ghnizes (prosaic mystic hymns), takhshejlos and husoyos (suppli- catory songs and prayers) and a boutho (litany). The funeral service for priests is usually concluded by a four- syllabic hymn of excellent poetry, perhaps composed by Asuna the disciple of St Ephraim which begins with: “Thou hast created me whilst I was non existent, and as thou hast created me have mercy on me.” The funeral service for laymen is likewise concluded by a passional metrical hymn by the same poet which begins thus: “Our Lord shall come and raise the dead. I have been separated from you my beloved ones, therefore, pray for me in order to go and receive the Lord’s favor.” There is a third metrical hymn by Asuna mentioned by Anton of Takrit which begins thus: “My days have come to an end.” These hymns which were called “the ancient hymns” ceased to be used except by the churches of Iraq. 7 An old funeral service book written in elegant fine Estrangelo script in 823 and preserved in MS. 92 in the Vatican contains the following: Thirty-one songs by St. Ephraim, two of which begin thus: “I have rejoiced when they told me” and “Farewell o earthly abode” (both of which are used in the Eastern Rite), and another hymn whose origin is unknown to us: “My days have passed; ” metrical songs for different clerical ranks, one of which is for bishops and begins with “who does not rejoice,” and several metrical hymns by St. Ephraim and St. Isaac together with hymns and canticles for the funeral services for bishops, monks, deacons and stylite ascetics. It also contains three consolatory discourses for priests and deacons, two ofwhich are in prosaic form and the third in metrical (composed by Asuna and beginning: “Brethren, implore the King for me and pray with tears for I am separated from you forever”) . The ancient funeral service books contained metri- cal hymns for the dead selected from the odes of Sts. Ephraim and Isaac and Jacob of Saruj. Several manu- scripts dealing with this subject shall be discussed later. We have also found in Meddo in Tur Abdin an old manuscript written in the thirteenth century which mentions the different customs in conducting the fu- neral sendees in T ur Abdin , Mardin , Malatya (Melitene) , Ani, 8 Syria, Palestine and other places. Another manu- script with elegant script completed at the beginning of the fifteenth century and preserved in our church in Hamah contains a funeral service according to the orders of Melitene, Hisn Ziyad and the northern coun- tries. It also contains another funeral service for the priest according to the order of Tur Abdin, from which has been copied the new MS. 118 of the Jerusalem library. SECTION THIRTEEN Choral Books The Syrians collected their church hymns and praises in a thick volume which they called Beth Gaz (The Treasure of Melodies). It contains: 1. The Ishhim or service book for regular week day prayers. 2. Acollection ofhymns called “Shahre,” or vigils to be sung by “Shohure” or vigils in Latin and Spoutheyos in Greek. These singers were greatly concerned about the organization of the times of prayers. Their rank, how- ever, followed that of the Psalters and, like priests and deacons of different ranks, they were supervised by the archdeacon. Their function is an old one in the church. They were mentioned by Marutha of Miyafarqin in the treatise, which he wrote between 408 and 410, ad- dressed to Isaac the Catholicos of Ctesiphon. 1 This collection contained hymns for the praise of the Virgin, the saints, and the martyrs, on repentance as well as on a description of the Cross, on the Nativity of Our Lord, the Resurrection and the commemoration of the dead. These vigils are fifty-one in number and in some manuscripts fifty-three. 2 Each one of them con- sists of either four, six, or eight lines and sometimes twenty-one, and even twenty-seven lines. Only a manu- script transcribed by the bishop Bahnam of Arbo in 1568 exclusively contains one type of these songs called Quqays which comprises sixty-seven lines. Other manu- scripts state that these Quqays were composed by St. Ephraim except for the famous Quqay composed by the deacon Simon the Potter and his band of Potters. 5 However, it is incorrect to ascribe all these Quqays to St. Ephraim, for the Potter (Simon) has composed many 30 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences lines of poetry and chorals of different meters similar to those composed by ancient poets who are unknown to us. 3. The madrashesor hymns composed by St. Ephraim, which numbered five hundred, most of which are lost. According to one source only forty-six or fifty madrashes have survived, to other sources sixty-seven. One manu- scriptalone mentions one hundred and seven madrashes. Not all of the madrashes contain many lines, especially those composed in commemoration of the Virgin, Saints, etc. Those having a great number of lines cover the most widely used hymns based on the eight tunes such as the madrashes beginning with “This is the month,” “The Father has written a message,” “Rise up, O Paul,” “Para- dise,” and others. No doubt, church poets have fre- quently composed their poems based on the madrashes meters. But it would be difficult to distinguish the madrashes composed in the early period by eloquent poets from those of St. Ephraim. The madrashes of the second period are easily distinguishable. The total num- ber of lines of the fifty-one madrashes is nine hundred and five lines. 4. The takhshejlos, or supplicatory hymns, number three hundred, ofwhich we only have two hundred and fifty-four. One manuscript enumerates only one hun- dred and thirty of these prayers. 4 Scholars also differ on the authors of these supplicatory hymns. To us, the author was Rabula, bishop of Edessa (d. 435), while a certain Beth Gaz mentions that they were written by St. Ephraim as well as Rabula and arranged by Jacob of Edessa. 5 According to another source the authors were SL Ephraim, Rabula and later authors who added to them their own takhsheftos . 6 Still another source main- tains that they were composed by Rabula and others, including Marutha of Takrit 7 5. The mawurbos or magnificats, is based on eight tunes and consists of two hundred and seven lines. 6. The ghnizos (prosaic supplicatory hymns) which to some scholars number seventy-two, to others eighty- three or even one hundred and nineteen. 7. The mabranos or funeral songs, number one hun- dred and seven, one of which was composed by Bar Qiqi. 8 8. The shubahosor praises chanted during the admin- istration of the Holy Communion. 9. The stikhunos or Stiches, hymns composed by Cyril ofjerusalem (d. 386) and especially used in the order of the consecration of the Holy Chrism and the clergy. 10. Stikharos or stichera, hymns composed by John Chrysostom. 1 1 . The eqbos (short prayers usually follow the suppli- catory prayer for incense) . They are eighty-one in num- ber and have in some cases a refrain called kurakh, which is changed antiphonally at the beginning of the evening and during the nocturnal prayers. 12. Processional hymns for the circle of the year which are mentioned only in an eastern Beth Gaz. 9 13. Sughithos, or canticles of hepta-syllabic meter. 14. Zumoros praises numbering seven hundred and twenty-eight, attached with them, are the Jithghomos or jubilation songs which are selected sections of the psalms. The authors of these praises and jubilation songs are unknown. 15. Inyonos, or anthems numbering thirty-seven, the majority of which are composed by St. Ephraim. One copy counts fifty-five of them. 16. The cathismatos or sessions numbering one hun- dred and seven, especially those used on Sundays and other festivals. It is said that they were translated from the Greek. The Beth Gaz in the village of Bati of Tur Abdin mentions that the cathismatos were composed by St. Ephraim. 17. The manithos x prose hymns numbering more than three hundred and seventy, two hundred and ninety of which came from the pen of St. Severus of Antioch. The rest were written by John bar Aphtonya, John Psaltes and others. Choral books contained a group of these hymns, one of which was written by Barsoum, maphrian of the East (d. 1454) on the sinner woman (in the Bible). 10 18. The Greek canons of eight tones mainly written byjacob of Edessa, Andrew of Takrit, Cosmas andjohn of Damascus. 11 Some of them were composed by Syrian poets. These canons, which number thirty-four, com- prised of seven hundred and fifty lines belong to the orders of both Edessa and Melitene. 19. The bouthos or supplicatory hymns, are select hymns composed by Sts. Ephraim, Isaac, Balai and Jacob of Edessa. To these are attached the tbirtho, an introductory verse recited before each supplicatory hymn. 20. The karuzuthos or conciones, composed by later poets especially David of Hims and Masud of Zaz to be chanted before higher ranks of the clergy prior to the reading of the Gospels. Because of their inferior com- position and poor meaning they were dropped from use. 21. Orders of the principal festivals. 22. The Eastern Intercession. 23. Diverse supplications. 24. The calendars or chronicles. The oldest, largest and most significant copy of the choral books is in the MS. 1 /5 at the Sharfa Monastery. Another rare bulky copy, in the Monastery of St. Abraham in Midyat, was unfortunately lost during World War I. We have a comprehensive copy in our library (atHims) , which contains madrashes and other hymns as shall be seen later. A short Beth Gazcon taining fifty-four madrashes, most of which are made up of one or two lines, was printed in the Zafaran Monastery in 191 3 and reprinted in 1925. 31 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences SECTION FOURTEEN Prayer Boohs of Priests and Monks Some of the Church fathers wrote different prayers for the blessing of meals, fruits, fields, crops, homes, children and the sick. They also wrote prayers for reconciliation, for the driving away of harm, pestilences and calamities and for confined women, etc. Of these prayers, forty-five are extant in the Service Book of Ordinations in the handwriting of Bishop Joseph the Iberian. 1 They were compiled in a small book entitled “The Priest’s Prayer Book.” The books of the Beth Gaz also contain a group of these prayers. Monks also have a small book containing a group of supplicatory prayers which they recite daily during the seven times of prayer. The purpose of these prayers is to elevate the mind to God, contemplate His wonderful works, praise Him and ask His forgiveness. Some of these prayers are beautiful samples of eloquence and rhetoric. They were mainly written by the ascetics Ephraim, Ibrahim of Qaydun, Macarius the Egyptian, Gregory the residen t of Cyprus (who wrote forty prayers) , Isaac, John the Less, John the Apocalyptic, Saraphion, Paul bishop of Cnotus, Simon the Stylite, Shanudin, Isaiah and others. They were also written by Doctors of the Church like Athanasius, Basilius, Gregory Nazianzen, John Chrysostom, Euthycus, Philoxenus and Severus. We have also found three old copies of this prayer book, the first of which was written around 1 420, 2 the second in 1500, in the handwriting of the monk Sergius of Hah, s and the third in 1507. 4 Later scholars translated these supplicatory prayers into mediocre Arabic. SECTION FIFTEEN The Book of Life The Syrians had a book or record called the Dabtkha (from the Greek Dyptichs - the Two Tablets) or, in Syriac, the Book of Life, or Book of the Living. This book contained a lengthy account of the redemptive works of Our Lord Jesus Christ followed by a list of the Prophets, the Aposdes, the Evangelists, the ancient doctors of the church, the illustrious chiefs of priests in the world, the saints, the martyrs, the ascetics, the pious women of the Old Testament, the female martyrs, the virgins and the ascetic women. It also includes a record of the Patri- archs of Antioch, the Maphrians of the East, the incum- bent bishops of the dioceses in which this record was read and preserved, and the names of a group of eminent priests, deacons, monks and nuns and men of charitable and religious endowment. Only a very small group of the betrayers of the faith and immoral men were excluded. A few blank sheets were also left for recording new names. This splendid book was read during the celebration of the Holy Eucharist on principal festivals after the Kiss of Peace. In some churches it was read once a year only to perpetuate the memory of the Church fathers and dignitaries; then, it was placed on the Altar for the rest of the year. This book is very old and had been men- tioned by the author of the Areopagite’s Book at the close of the fifth century and also by Moses Bar Kifa (d. 903). However, its recitation was dropped around the eleventh century. In 1909 we found two old copies of this Book, the first in Basibrina (consisting of 140 medium-sized pages and written in 1499 for the Monas- tery of Qartamin and containing many important his- torical information) , and the second in the village of Zaz (written in legible hand in the first quarter of the sixteenth century). The latter consists of 80 pages and is smaller than the former. We copied more than half of these two copies and eliminated the names of priests, monks and laymen. We were later informed that they were lost through the catastrophes of the war. 1 The Vatican MS. 39 contains a very short and insig- nificantversion of this book which contains a portion of religious endowment written for the church of Aleppo in the middle of the seventeenth century from which a photographic copy was made for the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris. Another short copy in Mosul, was commented upon in 1825, from which a copy in our library at Hims was duplicated. Other copies are to be found in the village of Bartulli and two in Birmingham (MSS. 3 and 172). Unfortunately, through the vicissi- tudes of time no trace has been left in our churches of this useful and comprehensive record, and with it a great deal of information abou t the history of our Syrian dioceses was lost. SECTION SIXTEEN Calendar of Festivals For The Whole Year A part of the Syriac rituals is the Calendar of Festivals which con tain s a table of the festivals, commemorations and fastings for the whole year. It was prescribed by the Syrians in the first few centuries. As a matter of fact, the second oldest copy of this calendar in Christendom is in Syriac and was written in 41 1 A.D. 2 It contained the names as well as festivals of the saints in general and included a group of the Persian martyrs. It exactly corresponds with the table of Anba Hieronymus (Jerome). At the end of the sixth century the monks of the famous Monastery of Qinnesrin had established a spe- cial calendar which contained the names of the saints who flourished in this monastery including some of its abbots. They had also days of festivals fixed for their commemoration. At the end of the seventh century, Jacob of Edessa drew up a general calendar for the 32 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences whole year which included former feasts, fasting and commemorations except the locally observed com- memorations. This calendar was used for a long time, but new names of church dignitaries and ascetics were added to it by Said bar Sabuni, bishop of Melitene (d. 1095). 3 It was revised in the first quarter of the four- teenth century by the monk-priest Saliba bar Khayrun of Hah (d. ca. 1340) who also added to it the names of many bishops and pious ascetics of Tur Abdin, particu- larly the monks of the monastery of Qartamin. In Mosul we found a Beth Gaz of two leaves of an old but short calendar relating to the Eastern Church, transcribed in 1546 by the priest Denha of Beth Khudayda, which mentions a few Eastern bishops and ascetics, not present in other calendars. We copied these two leaves. 4 We also have in our library at Hims two copies transcribed from the old and lengthy original Edessan calendar of bar Khayrun, one of which is in Amid and the other one in the library in Jerusalem. One of these copies, the lengthy one was published by Assemani in his Bibliotheca Orientalis while Peeters the Polish trans- lated into Latin the mentioned calendar of Saliba bar Khayrun and published it in 1908 with insignificant commentaries. In 1912 Frangois Nau published his French transla- tion with marginal notes of thirteen long and short calendars, beginning with the calendar of the year 411, and ending with the calendar of Qinnesrin. We close this chapter with a word about the calendar of the movable feasts and days of fasting which was drawn up by Eusebius of Caesarea and later explained, arranged or abridged by Dioscorus Gabriel of Bartulli, bishop of the island of Qardu, in 1296, then, by the Chorepiscopus Yuhanna (John) of Hims around 1716, and finally by the Chorepiscopus Jacob of Qutrubul in 1766. This last version of the calendar by Jacob of Qutrubul, which centers around the year 532 (and changes according to the alphabetical computation) was published by the subdeacon Gabriel Boyaji of Amid in College Point New York in the United States. 6 It begins with the year 1914 and is projected to the year 2221 A.D. It serves as a key to the occurrence of the fasting of Nineveh, the Lent, the festivals of the Pass- over, the Ascension, the Epiphany, the Holy Cross as well as to the beginning of each month in week days. 33 MS. at the Church of Inhil Two general service books in the Estrangelo script. SECTION SEVENTEEN The Oldest Manuscript on Which We Depended in Our Research What follows is a carefully arranged list of the oldest manuscripts of service books to which we referred or depended upon in our research. They comprise about two hundred volumes. I. The Fanqiths Manuscript Contents Vatican MS. 116 Brit. Mus. MS. 307 Brit Mus. MS. 14525 Brit Mus. MS. 14719 Brit Mus. MS. 14699 Brit Mus. MS. 14708 Berlin MS. 236 B. Nationale MS. 145 Boston MSS. 3032 and 395 7 1 Jerusalem MS. 5 1 Different anthems (re- frains) for the whole year written in 857. A fanqith for the whole year written in 893. Prayers for Passion Week, Lent, the Saints, Palm Sunday and funeral ser- vices. Service Book. Service Book. General service book. Service book for the whole year written in Estrangelo script on vellum 9th and 10th century. Very short general service book written in Estran- gelo in 1000 A.D. General service book. A brief Estrangelo service bookfor fasting, and feasts of saints. 11th and 12th century. MS. at the Church of Diyarbakr MS. at the Church of the Edessans in Aleppo Brit Mus. MS. 350 Brit. Mus. MS. 341 MS. at the Church of Diyarbakr MS. at the Church of Diyarbakr MS. at the Church MS. at the Church MS. at the Church of Meddo Two service books from the consecration of the church to the feasts of Martyrs. 11th and 12th century. The eighth service of the Resurrection and the principal feasts arranged by Jacob of Edessa. Estrangelo script. The canons for the whole year according to the tra- dition of thejazira. The canons for the whole year dated 1189. A very brief service book from the Consecration of the Church, to the feast ofthe Apostles, written before the 13th century. A lengthy old service book of the Greek canons for the whole year. The service book of the of Diyarbakr Resurrec- tion and twenty-eight feasts transcribed by the monk Zebina in 1208. A service book for the of Basibrina saints of the monastery of Qartamin written in Estrangelo by the monk Stephen around 1200. A service book for the Res- urrection as well as the feasts, written in elegant Estrangelo script by the monk Simon of Hah in 1205. MS. at the Church of Inhil A service book from the consecration of the Church to the general or- der written in Estrangelo in 1210. 34 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences Manuscript Contents MS. at the Church of al-Tahira (the Virgin) in Mosul MS. at the Church of in Mosul MS. at Berlin MS. at the Monastery of Mar Matta (St. Matthews) MS. at St Thomas Church in Mosul MS. at SL Thomas Church in Mosul MS. at the Church of Arnas MS. at the Church of Qaraqosh MS. at the Church of Qaraqosh The service book for Lent transcribed by the monk Masud in 1212. Two service books for al-Tahira (the Virgin) feasts, one of which was completed in the year 1213. A service book for the whole year containing the Edessan calendar made according to the Edessan tradition, canons ofjacob of Edessa. as well as the orders of Mar Phula, Mar Simon, Zaytuni and Mar Lazarus. Vol. 1, p. 43 of the Index. A service book of the fast ing of Nineveh, the scar- city of rain and the three Fridays in the western script, 1241. A service book of feasts, transcribed by Jacob of Talqbab in 1245. A service book of Lent, compiled by the priest Abu al-Saadat ibn Duqayq of Mosul and transcribed by the priest Simon of Bartulli in 1246. Canons and anthems (re- frains) for the whole year, written in Estrangelo in 1254. A service book of the Res- urrection and the Week of the White, written in the 13th century. A service book for the Lent MS. at the Church of Qaraqosh B. Nationale MS. 155 MS. at the Church of al-Tahira (the Virgin) in Mosul Medici Lurenziana MS. 35 B. MS. at our Church in Egypt Berlin MS. 58 MS. at the Zafaran Monastery. Jerusalem (St. Marks’ Monastery) MS. 53 Jerusalem MS. 52 A service book for the fast ing of Nineveh and the three Fridays, dated 1270. 1269. Yearly canons, the tran- scription ofwhich is partly Edessan and partly of Melitene according to the new revision of 1 279. Two service books for the Passion written on paper in the Estrangelo, script in 1301. A regular service book for weekday prayers as well as for Sundays and the festi- vals of saints. A service book for the con- secration of the church, an d for the principal feasts as well as the festival of St. Thomas, transcribed by the monk Jacob of Manimim in 1383. The orders of the Resur- rection which follow the Pentecost written shortly before 1395. The orders of principal feasts as well as the festi- vals of saints numbering forty orders, in the hand- writing of Sulayman in the fourteenth century. A service book for the fes- tivals of the Nativity of our Lord and others arranged according to the celebra- tion of services at the dif- ferent holy places in Jerusalem, written before 1414. The orders of Palm Sun- day and the Passion Week in the handwriting of Pa MS. at the Monastery of Mar Matta (St. Matthews) A service book of fasting in the hand writing of Zebina in the 13th cen- tury. MS. at the Church of The service book of the al-Tahira (the Virgin) Mosul fasting of Nineveh and the three Fridays dated 35 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences Manuscript Ms. at the Church of Basibrina MS. at the Monastery of Mar Malke MS. at the St. Elijah Monastery in Habab MS. at the Kabiyya Church MS. at the Church of St Moses in Damascus. MS. at the Church of Hisn Kifa MS. at the Church of Qellith MS. at the church of St. Moses MS. at the Church of Mar JurJis (St. George) in Aleppo Contents triarch Basil Simon, writ- ten in the year 1443. Two service books for the Resurrection, one of which was transcribed from six copies by monk Yeshu of Basibrina in 1444. A large size service book, transcribed by the monk Malke Saqo in 1476. A service book for the Res- urrection in the handwrit- ing of the monk Ibrahim of Basibrina, written in 1479. A service book of the Res- urrection, the general or- ders and the week of the Whites, in the handwrit- ing of the monk Malke Saqo, written around 1480. A service book of the Res- urrection and the saints dated 1487. Another copy of the same manuscript in the same church was written in an elegan t script before 1487. A winter service book in the handwriting of the monk Denha Sayfi of Salh in 1496. The service books of the Resurrection and festivals of saints, transcribed by the monk Ibrahim of Kafar in 1505. The service books of the Resurrection, the festivals of saints and the week of the White written in 1513. The service books of the Resurrection, and of the saints in the handwriting MS. at the St. Thomas Church in Mosul Boston MS 4031 Brit. Mus. MS. 14494 Brit. Mus. MS. 14495 Brit. Mus. MS. 17128 B. Nationale, Paris MS. 70 Jerusalem Library MS. 55 The Zafaran Monastery MS. 117 of themonk Ibrahim of Nabk, written in 1526. The service book of the Annunciation, i.e., the Christmas days of fasting, dated 1535. In vellum, a huge volume written in an elegantscript between the 10th and 11th century. It contains orders from the consecra- tion of the Church to the Festival of the Cross. In vellum, some husoyos in the Estrangelo script Imperfect. Orders and husoyos for fasting. Husoyos for the whole year. A sacerdotal for priests with a collection of husoyos for the whole year according to the newly es- tablished revision, written in elegantEstrangelscript in 1059. A sacerdotal for priests with a collection of un- specific husoyos, written in the Estrangelo script by the priest Said Shamli of Hisn Ziyad in 117 1. In vellum, husoyos for the Passion Week as well as the festivals which succeed B. Nationale, Paris MS. 167 Winter husoyos in the handwriting of Michael the Great, written in 1 190. MS. at the Church of Qellith The service books of the Resurrection and the feasts in the handwriting of the monk Tuma of Midyat, written in 1553. 11 . The Husoyos (Propitiatory Prayers) 36 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences Manuscript Contents MS. at the Church the Resurrection. Written in the Estrangelo script at the Monastery of Ascetics in the Mountain of Edessa in 1209. of Meddo for winter MS. at the Monastery MS. at the Church On paper, unspecific of Mar Malke of Diyarbakr husoyos for the whole year. Written in Western script by Dioscorus Theodorus in 1225. An- other copy of the same manuscript is in this church. MS. at the Church MS. at the Church On vellum and paper, the of Basibrina of Diyarbakr husoyos of the Passion as MS. at the Church well as the summer husoyos. Written in West- ern script by the monk Zebina in 1227. Many husoyos for the MS. at the Church of Basibrina of al-Tahira, Mosul Apostles and the deeds of Christ Our Lord as well as a liturgy by Cyril of Hah, written in the fourteenth century. MS. at the Church MS. at the Monastery The husoyos of fasting in of Basibrina of the Cross, Makhr the handwriting of the monk Ibrahim of Hah, written in the fourteenth MS. at the Church of Inhil MS. at the Church century. A similar copy of the MS. at the Monastery of of Hisn Kifa former manuscript, writ- St. Jacob MS. at the Zafaran ten in 1392. The husoyos of the Resur- Monastery rection and the deeds of Christ Our Lord, in the handwriting of the priest Simon of Amid, written around 1450. MS. at the Church of B. Nationale, Paris MS. 374 Husoyos from the Nativ- St. Moses in Damascus ity of John the Baptist till the end of the Passion Week, in the handwriting of the monk Sergius of Hah, written at the close of the fifteenth century. A huge volume contain- ing 307 husoyos in the handwriting of the monk Ibrahim Mutayra, written between 1460 and 1480. Husoyos for the consecra- tion of the church and Lent, transcribed by Jo- seph in 1468. Another manuscript in this Mon- astery contains husoyos for the saints and the prin- cipal feasts. A thick volume contain- ing husoyos from the con- secration of the Church to the Sunday of the res- urrection in thehandwrit ing of the priest Addai, written in 1478. The husoyos of the Resur- rection until the Dispen- sation of Our Lord, in the handwriting of priest Addai, written in 1477. The husoyos of the festi- vals of saints. A thick vol- ume probably written by the same Addai. Winter husoyos. Husoyos for the consecra- tion of the in Salh Church in the handwriting of the monk Sadaqa of Ayn Ward. Another manu- script in this monastery contains the husoyos for Lent. An ancient manuscript containing husoyos for the consecration of the church and Lent. A sec- ond manuscript contains husoyos for the resurrec- tion and the festivals of sain ts. A third manuscript in this church contains husoyos for the consecra- tion of the church and 37 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences Manuscript MS. at the Church of Qellith MS. at the Monastery of John of Tay MS. at the Church of Hisn Kifa MS. at the Monastery of the Cross, Makhr MS. at the Church of Qalat Mara III. Baptism, the Benediction of Marriage, Prayers for the Sick, and Repentance Contents succeeding festivals, in the handwriting of Ibrahim al-Mardini, written in 1 504. A fourth manuscript contains husoyos written at the beginning of the sixteenth century. A thick volume contain- ing husoyos for the whole year written in a very el- egant script by the monk Ibrahim ibn al Muzawwaq in 1487. Another manu- script contains husoyos for the resurrection and the summer festivals. A large volume of husoyos for the consecration of the church and Lent, in the handwriting of the monk Sergius, written in 1504. Husoyos for the consecra- tion of the church, tran- scribed by the monk Jo- seph the Iberian in 1506. Summer husoyos tran- scribed byjoseph the Ibe- rian in 1507. Another manuscript contains husoyos for the resurrec- tion as well as the com- memorationsin thehand- writing of the monk Tho- mas of Midyat, written in 1559. A third manuscript in the same Monastery contains the husoyos for the saints in the handwrit- ing of the two monks Ibrahim and Saliba Awad, written in 1549. The husoyos for saints in the handwriting of the monk Iliyya Yeshu in the middle of the sixteenth century. Brit. Mus. MS. 17128 Brit Mus. MS. 14495 MS. at our Library in Hims Jerusalem MS. 117 MS. at our Church in Egypt B. Nationale, Paris MS. 102 MS. at the Church of St. Cosmas for the Greeks in Diyarbakr MS. at our Church in Egypt MS. at the Church of Mar Sarkis in Sadad The order of Baptism by Timothy of Alexandria. The order of Baptism composed by Severus and translated into Syriac by Paul, bishop of Talla. The orders of Baptism and the Benediction of Marriage in the beautiful Estrangelo script, written in the tenth century. The orders of Baptism and the Benediction of Marriage dated 1 324. The orders of Baptism and the Benediction of Marriage in the handwrit- ing of Patriarch Phil- oxenus 11, written at the close of the fourteenth century. The order of the Bene- diction of Marriage as ar- ranged byJacobofEdessa and other doctors of the Church, dated 1434. The orders of Baptism, the Benediction of Mar- riage and a part of the funeral service, in the handwriting of Joseph bishop of Kharput and Karkar, written in 1451. The order of the Bene- diction of Marriage in the handwriting of Moses in the fifteenth or sixteenth century. The orders of Baptism and the Benediction of Marriage in the handwrit- ing of Bishop Ibrahim, written at the beginning of the sixteenth century. 38 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences Manuscript Contents Another copy of this manuscript is at our li- MS. at our Library brary. Jerusalem MS. 59 The order of the Bene- diction of Marriage writ- ten in the sixteenth cen- tury. Jerusalem MS. Ill A second order for the consecration of Baptismal Oil originally contained by the book of Ordina- tions in the handwriting of Patriarch Nuh. a Beth Gaz (Treasure of Melodies) in 1210. A service book of the of- fice of ordinations, the orders of Baptism, the Benediction of Marriage and parts of the orders of principal festivals, half of which were transcribed in the thirteenth century with the name of nine church fathers in Greek fixed in its margin, and the other half in the be- ginning of the fifteen cen- tury. MS. at the Church of the Edessens in Aleppo Vatican MS. 51 The orders of Baptism and the Benediction of Marriage as well as the canons of Repentance which had been written and compiled by Patri- arch Jacob. A general order for the confessors. MS. at our Library Jerusalem MS. 109 The Edessens Library at Aleppo The service book for as- suming the monastic garb, dated 1358. A service book of ordina- tions (according to the Eastern Rite) in the hand- writing of deacon Abd Al- lah of Bartulli in 1300. The book of clerical ordi- nation. MS. at the Church of Hafar An order for the sick. MS. at the Church of Bartulli MS. at the Church of Kharput BriLMus. MS. 17232 The orders of Baptism and the Benediction of Marriage by St. Severus together with the order of Baptism abridged by the maphrian (probably Bar Hebraeus) . The order of clerical ordi- nations in the handwrit- ing of Bishop Dawud in 1203. The order of assuming the monastic garb, written in Sharfa MS. 5/7 MS. at our Library MS. at the Monastery of Cross in Tur Abdin Jerusalem MS. Ill The service book of ordi- nations and sacraments, written in the fourteenth century. The order of ordinations and parts of the order of principal festivals, some of which was transcribed at the beginning of the fifteenth century and oth- ers in 1 862. Another copy contains the order of or- dinations written in the middle of the fifteenth and latter part of the eigh- teenth century. A thick service book of the order of ordinations in the handwriting of the monk Qufer of Tur Abdin, written in 1487. A service book of the or- der of ordinations in the IV. The Office of Ordination B. Nationale, Paris MS. 113 The order of clerical ordi- nation in the handwrit- ing of Michael the Great. Another copy, MS. 1 12 of the same, is dated 1239. 39 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences Manuscript Contents MSS. at our Library Zafaran Monastery MS. 220 Vatican MS. 51 handwriting of Patriarch Nuh, written in 1506. An- other two copies, NIS S. I 10 and 113, in this library contain the service book of ordinations transcribed in the sixteenth century. Liturgies, the office of or- dination of a deacon and priest, the order of assum- ing the monastic garb as well as the consecration of the Chrism in the hand- writing of the metropoli- tan Cyril Joseph, written in 1513. Another manu- script contains the conse- cration of the Chrism, the Altar and the Church, transcribed in the middle of the sixteenth century. A large service book of ordinations and principal services in the handwrit- ing of Bishop Joseph the Iberian, written in 1535. A service book of ordina- tions. MS. at the Monastery of Mar Ibrahim in Midyat MS. at the Monastery of Mar Awgayn Jerusalem MS. 58 MS. at the Church of Diyarbakr MS. Paris MS. at the Church of Mar Sarkis in Sadad forgiveness on the Satur- day of Annunciation, dated 1443. The order of all of the festivals in the large Beth Gaz, dated 1468, which has been lost. A complete service book with hymns comprising thirteen festivals in the handwriting of the monk Malke Saqo, written in 1484. A service book with hymns in the handwriting of the monk Addai of Hbab, writ- ten in 1495. A service book with hymns transcribed by Ibrahim of Basibrina, written in 1495. A service book with hymns in the handwriting of Ibrahim of Basibrina, writ- ten in 1496. A service book with hymns transcribed by the monk Bishara, written in 1564. V. Sendee Books of Hymns For Principal Feasts Brit Mus. MS. 141494 Brit. Mus. MS. 17128 Zafaran MS. 99 MS. at our Church in Egypt Jerusalem MS. 52 Contains the order of the consecration of water on the Epiphany, written on vellurn. Imperfect at the beginning. The same as above. An ancient book with hymns for principal feasts. The order of the Bene- diction of Branches in the handwriting of David the Egyptian, written in 1403. The order of Palm Sun- day as well as the order of Jerusalem MS. 62 MS. at the Church of Fayruza Vatican MS. 92 Boston {Houghton Library, Harvard University) MS. 4013 The Benediction of the water composed by Severus and vocalized by Jacob of Edessa dated 1569. A service book with hymns in the handwriting of the monk Gurgis al-Wanki, written around 1601. A funeral service book written on vellum in a good and fine Estrangelo script in 823. Funeral services of priests, deacons, monks and lay men written in the twelfth century. VI. Funeral Sendees 40 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences Manuscript Contents MS. at the Church of Diyarbakr A complete funeral ser- vice book comprising vari- ous hymns written in the Estrangelo script by the monk Yeshu of the Malphan Monastery in 118 8. Brit. Mus. MS. 14494 Some sedras for the dead, one of which was written by Athanasius patriarch of Antioch. Brit. Mus. MS. 14520 A service book compris- ing a fun eral service which begins with a hymn based on the melody of Para- dise written by a learned church father. Brit. Mus. MS. 17131 The funeral services for the priests and monks. It also contains a madrash by bar Andrew. Brit Mus. MS. 14502 A funeral service book. Brit. Mus. MS. 14525 A funeral service written on vellum in the Estrangelo script. Imper- fect. Brit. Mus. MSS. 14638 and 14636 Consolatory discourses for the dead. Vatican MS. 93 Some madrashes for the dead included within the discourses of John the Ascetic. Boston (Houghton Library, Harvard University) MS. 4016 Funeral services for men, women and children ac- cording to the order of Jacob of Edessa, written by Simon in a neat hand- writing in the fourteenth century. Jerusalem MS. 117 Funeral service for men and children, in two hymns written in 1324. MS. at the Church of Hama A funeral service for the dead according to the or- der of Melitene and Hisn Ziyad and the funeral ser- vice for the priests accord- ing to the order of Tur Abdin, written in a neat handwriting at the begin- ning of the fifteenth cen- tury. MS. at the Church of the Virgin in Bartulli An old funeral service bookand another one for priests written in the middle of tire sixteenth century. Jerusalem MS. 120 A funeral service accord- ing to the arrangementof Jacob of Edessa. MS. at the Church of Hims Funeral services for the clergy and laity comprised two hymns, one by St. Ephraim and the other by Asuna, written in the middle of the seventeenth century. MS. at the Monastery of St. Matthew A funeral service for ini- tiate monks. MS. at the Church of the Virgin in Qaraqush A funeral service for ini- tiate monks. VII Madrashes and Maaniths Vatican MS. I 1 1 161 madrashes by St. Ephraim, written on vel- lum in the Estrangelo script in 522. Vatican MS. 112 The same as above, writ- ten in the year 552. MS. British MUS.2 Hymns of Severus of Antioch written on vellum in 675. Brit. Mus. MS. 17261 Supplicatory hymns and calendars of festivals. Vatican MS. 113 87 madrashes written be- fore 932. MS. Brit. Mus. Madrashes written before the thirteenth century. 41 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences Manuscript Contents Brit. Mus. MS. 14520 Madrashes, anthems and verses for the Passion Week. It also contains a funeral service and con- solatory discourses. Jerusalem MS. 60 The hymn of Severus and 230 supplicatory hymns of Rabula written on vellum in 1210. MS. Brit. Mus. General supplicatory hymns written in 1257. MS. at our Library A valuable collection of madrashes fine introduc- tory hyn-ms and qalas writ- ten in handwriting in the thirteenth century. MS. at our Church of West New York in New Jersey A valuable collection of madrashes according to the order of Melitene in the handwriting of Dea- con Ibrahim al-Dunaysari in 1285. Zafaran MS. 118 A valuable collection of madrashes, introductory hymns and cathismata written in a pleasant hand- writing between the thir- teenth and the fourteenth century. VJU. The Beth Gaz ( Treasure of Melodies) Sharfa MS. 511 A very lengthy Beth Gaz written between the elev- enth and twelfth century. Brit. Mus. MS. 17207 Portions of psalters and hymns for taking the Holy Communion written be- tween the eighth and ninth century. Brit Mus. MS. 17232 A Beth Gaz in the hand- writing of Deacon Denha, written in 1210. B. Nationale, Paris MS. 147 A Beth Gaz in the hand- writing of Philoxenus. MS. at our Library A Beth Gaz written be- tween the fourteenth and fifteenth century. MS. at the Church of Diyarbakr A valuable lengthy Beth Gaz in the fine handwrit- ing of Deacon Abu al-Hasan, written in the fifteenth century. MS. at the Jerusalem Library A Beth Gaz in the hand- writing of the monk Simon Mubarak, written in 1436. MS. at the Church of al-Tahira in Mosul An old Beth Gaz written in an elegant Karkari script MS. at the Monastery of Mar Ibrahim in Midyat A very elaborate and valu- able Be th Gaz in the hand- writing of Bishop Simon of Ayn Ward, written in 1468. MS. Zafaran A Beth Gaz written in 1471. Jerusalem MS. 79 A Beth Gaz in the neat and fine handwriting of the monk Saliba of Salh, written in 1470 or 1480. MS. at the Church of Meddo A lengthy Beth Gaz tran- scribed from three cop- ies, one of which belongs to the monk Basil in the handwriting of the monk Saliba, written in 1478. MS. at the Rockefeller University in Chicago A small-size Beth Gaz in the handwriting of the monk Ibrahim of Basi- brina, written in 1481. Zafaran MS. 124 A lengthy Beth Gaz in the handwriting of Jacob 1, patriarch of Antioch, writ- ten in 1488. MS. at the village of Bati A Beth Gaz written in 1488. Brit. Mus. MS. 14736 A Beth Gaz in the hand- writing of the monk Ibrahim of Basibrina, writ- ten in 1492. 42 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences Manuscript Jerusalem MS. 64 Woodbrooke Library, Birmingham MS. 321 MS. at al-Hasaka (Upper Jazira) MS. at our Library Contents A Beth Gaz written in a neat but thick script be- tween the fifteenth and sixteenth century. A Beth Gaz comprising hymns of St Ephraim ac- cording to the Khudaydi 5 order, processional hymns and madrashes on eight melodies (except the melody of Paradise which is based on five melodies) transcribed by the priest Den ha of Khudayda in 1542. A Beth Gaz with the analy- sis of the scales of songs, written at the Monastery of Mar Abhai in 1560. A lengthy Beth Gaz writ- ten in a neat script com- pleted by Bishop Bahnam the Qusuri (originally from Arbo) in 1568. An- other Beth Gaz written in fine handwriting by Yeshu Jerusalem MS. 62 MS. at the Zafaran Monastery MS. at the Church of Mardin MS. at the Church of Bartulli MS. at our Church in Constantinople. in the middle of the six- teenth century. A third Beth Gas transcribed by the priest Mansur of Zaz in 1569. Afourth Beth Gaz written in the sixteenth century. A Beth Gaz written in a Karkari script in 1569. A lengthy Beth Gaz com- prising the Eastern Inter- cession in the handwrit- ing of Denha, written in the middle of the six- teenth century. A lengthy Beth Gaz writ- ten at the close of the six- teenth century. A Beth Gaz according to the order of Takrit writ- ten in 1590. A Beth Gaz according to the order of Melitene and Mesopotamia written in 1614. 43 CHAPTER SEVENTEEN Theology Beside the benefits they gained from translating the Greek works of the pioneer Christian theologians, whether Greeks, Copts or Romans, 1 the Syrians excelled in theology and produced eminent theologians, whose names and works are given below. If we exclude the many theological subjects which were deeply penetrated and fathomed by St. Ephraim, Isaac and Jacob of Saruj in their splendid poems and hymns, the works of St. Severus in which he examined and established the facts with decisive proofs, the Syn- odical letters exchanged between the patriarchs of Antioch and Alexandria from 514 to 850, the doctrinal reports and letters written by bishops and abbots in the second half of the sixth century which were compiled in the Syriac Documents, 2 and the homilies and expositions of the Holy Bible, we would consider Philoxenus of Mabug the first Syrian theological authority who ven- tured into this momentous branch of knowledge. Philoxenus was followed by Jacob of Edessa, the patri- arch Cyriacus, John of Dara, Moses bar Kifa, Bar Salibi and Bar Hebraeus. These church dignitaries are consid- ered of the leading and chief theologians in establish- ing the divine knowledge and supporting it by authori- ties. They stand in the first category of theologians followed by a second and a third category. Philoxenus wrote two valuable treatises on the Trin- ity, monotheism and the Incarnation of the Word. Jacob of Edessa wrote a theological book mentioned by Bar Hebraeus in his Hudoye (Nomocanon or Direction) as well as an interesting chapter in the book The Six Days in which he discussed the salvation of man. Jacob also wrote an expository treatise of the celebration of the Holy Eucharist Another author, the patriarch Cyriacus, wrote an eloquent and splendid work on the Provi- dence of God. John of Dara composed four apposite works on the priest and priesthood, the Resurrection, the Angles, the Demons, the human soul and Paradise. Moses bar Kifa wrote five excellent and very rich books on the Hexameron (the Six Days of Creation) , the Resur- rection, Paradise, the Angels, the human soul, the exposition of the Sacraments, Baptism, the Chrism and the Holy Eucharist Bar Salibi was the author of a large volume of copious subjects dealing with theology and the exposition of the sacraments. He also wrote another volume on Polemics. From the pen of Bar Hebraeus we have Mnorath Qudshe (The Lamp of the Sanctuaries) and its abridgement, Zalge (The Book of Rays) in which he fathomed the divine knowledge and tackled its origins and branches. He also offered us two treatises on the human soul. The second category includes Aphrahat (Aphraatus) the Persian who wrote the Homilies, the patriarch Peter of Raqqa (Callinicus) , who wrote a theological treatise of three chapters in refutation of Dominaus of Alexan- dria, Julian the Second who thoroughly commented on and clarified the work of his predecessor, John III, and Athanasius II who composed masterful sedras, George, bishop of the Arabs, who expounded the Sacraments of the Church, John of Atharb who wrote a very useful treatise on the soul, Lazarus bar Qandasa and Ben- jamin, metropolitan of Edessa, who excelled in master- ful commentaries and notes, Lazarus bar Sobto and bar Wahbun who wrote two expository treatises on the celebration of the Holy Eucharist, Nonnus of Nisibin who refuted Thomas of Marga and also wrote a treatise on monotheism, the Trinity and on the Word of God, Anton of Takrit who wrote a book on the Providence of God and expounded the sacrament of the Chrism, John the disciple of Marun the author of a tractate on the Incarnation of the Word, bar Shushan and bar Andrew who challenged the Armenians, bar Sabuni the author of the husoyos which indicate his deep-rooted knowl- edge in the divine knowledge andjacob of Bartulli who wrote the two books of the Treasures and the Plain Truth. Under the third category come Simon Zaytuni the author of treatises on the dogma, Phocas bar Sergius and Theodore bar Zarudi who commented on the work attributed to Dionysius the Areopagite, Daniel of Beth Batin who wrote a treatise on the difference between the Eucharist and the Chrism, the Rabban Sergius who refuted the allegations of the Armenians, John bishop of Mardin who wrote two treatises on the exposition of the Holy Eucharist and the Chrism, and Simon, maphrian of Tur Abdin (d. 1740) from whose pen we have two books Theology and The Chariot of Mysteries. To this category may be added Aziz bar Sobto who wrote a treatise entitled The Ascent of the Mind and Masud of Zaz who has a few theological chapters in his book entitled The Spiritual Ship} CHAPTER EIGHTEEN The Pseudo-Work of Dionysius The Areopagite In view of the far-reaching effect and the great controversy which has been caused among scholars by the work ascribed to the theologian Dionysius the 44 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences Areopagite, we will devote a special chapter to it. This book, which is comprised of 466 pages, was dedicated to the Bishop Timothy. 1 Of its four treatises the first, divided into thirteen chapters dealing with the divine names (de Divinis Nominibus), takes up half of the work. The second, on the celestial hierarchy, con- tains fifteen chapters dealing with the angels, their duties, names and ranks. The third, on mystical theol- ogy, contains five chapters discussing God as an incom- prehensible being free from falsehood. Finally, the fourth, on the ecclesiastical hierarchy, consists of seven chapters according to the Mosul copy. The Jerusalem copy, however, complies with the arrangement of the Latin translation in regard to the following: The Celes- tial Hierarchy, the Ecclesiastical Hierarchies, the Divine Names, and Mystical Theology. It seems that either Phocas or Cyriacus Shamuna changed the organization of the old copy of this work. 2 These treatises are followed by ten epistles, some of which were addressed to Gaius the ascetic and the rest to Dorotheos the deacon, Sosypatrus the priest, Dimophelus the ascetic, Polycarp the chief priest, Titus, and John the Apostle. The Jerusalem copy mentions that the author wrote a treatise on the legitimate Eccle- siastical Hierarchy which he placed before the Celestial Hierarchy, but it was not rendered into Syriac. There are many copies of this work, most of which were written on vellum. The oldest copy, transcribed about the seventh century (Mount Sinai Library, MS. 52), is imperfect at the beginning and the end. The second copy, transcribed in a very elegant Estrangelo script by the Edessene Malkite scribe, Cyriacus bar Shamuna, who finished it on 1st December 766 5 , is complete. It is preserved at our church of al-Tahira in Mosul. The third copy, transcribed in the ninth century is preserved at our Jerusalem Library (MS. 123), and resembles the former in its script and elegance. It mentions the year 887 as the date of the donation of the book. Other copies are preserved at the British Museum (MS. 12151 written in 804 A.D. and MS. 22370 written about 1350 A.D.) 4 Here are the contents of the book in detail. In the first treatise the author discusses the source of the Divine Names, the theology of the union and separation of the two natures of Christ and what is the essence of this divine union or separation; the meaning of prayer, worship, and the writing of the theological science. He also discusses the good, the light and the radiant, and rejects the perpetuity of evil and that it proceeds from the living God. He further discussed life, wisdom, rea- son, speech, truth, faith, power, justice, safety, equality and inequality, semblance and dissemblance, the cos- mos, the Almighty, the Ancient of days, eternity, times and peace, the essence of Him who exists by himself, the essence of the living, the Most Holy, the King of Kings, the perfect and the One God. In the second treatise, he discusses the Ecclesiastical Hierarchy and its usefulness, the meaning of the at- tributes of angels, the reason the heavenly hosts were called angels and their first, middle, and last ranks. The Seraphim, the Cherubim, and the Thrones are the first rank; the Dominions, the Powers or Heavenly Hosts and Princedoms are the middle rank; the Principalities, the angels and archangels are of the last rank. He also discussed the reason these Celestial Hierarchies were called Heavenly Hosts, why the term angels was used for the church hierarchies, the number of angels which has been handed to us, and the portraits which resemble^ the angelic hosts. Up to this time the subject of angels had been considered to be so obscure that it was not even taken up in the writings of Basilius and Gregory Nazianzen. It only became known when the author of this book (Dionysius the Areopagite) wrote aboutitand his ideas were adopted by Christian scholars. 5 The third treatise contained the Mystical Theology and the Celestial Cloud, the explanation of how we should praise and declare as one Him who is the cause of all and dominates over all; the theological terminolo- gies which might be used negatively and positively; and the propositions that there is no perceptible being which by its eminence could become the cause of all perceptible tilings and that no rational being could become by its eminence the cause of all rational things. The fourth treatise discusses the essence and pur- poses of bestowing the authority of priesthood and what should be done in the case of baptism, the celebration of the Holy Eucharist, the Chrism, the ecclesiastical laying of hands, its ranks, rituals and also monasticism and the prayer for the dead. Here are some of the author’s opinions: The author believes that the Almighty God is the absolute and supreme being who can neither be contained by an attribute nor be comprehended by words. Also, the perfection, beauty and knowledge attributed to Him do not apply to Him in the same proportion of our under- standing of these qualities that we perceive in the created beings 6 and that the two terms “Monotheism” and “Trinity” do not at all express the reality of the Divine Being, whose majesty is incomprehensible. 7 For the deacon purifies the believer, the priest enlightens him, and the bishop perfects him. 8 Furthermore, the Neo-Platonic philosophy which penetrated the theo- retical mystical theology does not confirm reality but exposes it under a veil of symbols through which it leads the thirsty soul to holiness and light- but with no proof. 9 The text of the book is preceded by these chapters: 10 1) A treatise by Sergius the Priest entitled the “Intro- duction” which precedes the translation of the book from Greek into Syriac (34 pages). 2) A treatise composed by Phocas bar Sergius of Edessa in which he explains the notes and expounds on the text (p. 3) . 3) A defense of the book and its author and commen- 45 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences tator by the Bishop John of Baysan (Scythopolis), the scholastic. The gist of the defense is that this book was written by (Dionysius) the Areopagite and that the objection of those who denied his authorship on the ground that Eusebius of Caesarea did not mention it is irrelevant In fact, Eusebius admitted that many books had not reached him, such as the works of Narcissus, Hemneas, Pantaenas and Clement of Rome (excepting his two epistles) and others. He only mentioned four works of Origen and a few others by Hemneas, and that a Roman deacon named Peter informed him that the works of Dionysius the Areopagite were preserved at the library of Rome. The writer concludes that the objector to the teaching of this saint regarding Monotheism and Trinity, the rational and perceptible being, the resur- rection and the Lastjudgment has simply no proof on which to condemn him. 4) A second defense of seven pages written by George of Baysan (Scythopolis), priest of the great church of Constantinople. It purports that Dionysius of Alexan- dria has stated in his letter to Xystus II of Rome that because the Areopagite was well-versed and proficient he was qualified to write on theology. He added that, although many scholars flourished in the church, their works, nevertheless, were lost to us, let alone the works falsified by the hypocrites. Both John and George were Malkites who lived in the first part of the sixth century. 5) A report by the priest Mar Atanos in 817, which precedes the book and its table of contents. 6) A treatise by the Rabban Lazarus bar Qandasa supporting the author’s opinion on the priority of the Seraphim’s rank. 7) Commentaries on the text by Theodore bar Zarudi of Edessa, 11 MS. 124 transcribed in the ninth or tenth century at the Jerusalem library contains explanations of the obscurities of the book in 37 pages. Contrary to other manuscripts this copy counts fifty chapters. It is, therefore, evident from what has been men- tioned that the Syrians received this book with approval. They were followed by the Byzantines, who greatly revered it, and the Latins, who rendered it into their language and whose scholars were about to place it on the same footing with the Holy Scriptures. 12 On its foundation their chief scholar, Thomas Aquinas (d. 1271), based most of his elaborate theological writ- ings. 15 He never deviated from its principles, which he regarded as final. The impact of mysdcal theology on the minds of the Westerners was so far-reaching that none of them before the fifteenth century doubted its authenticity. Not until the middle of the nineteenth century did the scholars loudly declare that the book was apocryphal and resolved that its writer was a philoso- pher-monk who possessed exceptional creativeness, ability and adroitness. This writer had a tendency to- wards the orthodox doctrine but shunned the disputa- tions of the people in his time. He wrote the book in Greek in the land of al-Sham (Syria) or Palestine later than 482, perhaps in the latter part of the fifth or the beginning of the sixth century. Avoiding the mention- ing of the one incarnate nature or the two natures of Christ, he advocated a new one theandric act for the incarnate God, 14 and welded the Neo-Platonic philoso- phy with the Christian science of theology after reading the works of Proclus , an adherent of this philosophy (41 1-485 ) , and making great use of them. Moreover, he associated the mystical theology with ecclesiastical the- ology. He also mentioned the recitation of the Creed of Faith in the celebration of the Eucharist, which was only established in the year 476, and came out for the baptism of infants and a complete monastic order (of which there is no trace in the first three centuries). In his writing, he purposely adopted a majestic style full of vague expressions and metaphors while avoiding simple wording in order to hide his purpose. In doing this, he may merely have been imitating the style of pagan phi- losophers, or he might possibly have believed that such a method would be more appropriate for his grave subject He also pretended that he was guiding his readers to the way of perfection which ends with the witnessing of God. He also introduced a teaching free from doubt for con- templating and drawing near His presence. This book appeared for the first time in 532-533 in a controversial session which included the Orthodox and Malkites. While the Orthodox cited it as a testimony the Malkites rejected it although a few of their scholars accepted and defended it. In the following century an exposition of this book was made by the monothelite monk Maximus (d. 662) after which it was unanimously accepted by the Orthodox and Malkite scholars. This is what contemporary Western scholars say about this book without discussing the arguments of ancient schol- ars. They also state that although they have not uncov- ered its mystery completely, they have paved the way for such a goal. After presenting the arguments and evidence of these scholars, and casting a penetrating look at the text and its Syriac expositions which occupied the scholars for nearly three hundred years (500P-817?), we may conclude that due to its form and style, this book is apocryphal. Its complicated style, of Neo-Platonic na- ture, and its treatment of subjects unknown to the early period of Christianity, leaves no doubt that it was the composition of an unknown author. But it is not un- likely that it had a short authentic origin to which the author added much information and gave it its new form characterized by a special philosophical style. Although the testimony of Dionysius of Alexandria (d. 256) about the Areopagite did not reach us, it is as valuable and irrefutable as his testimony about the Didascalia and other subjects. 46 CHAPTER NINETEEN Ecclesiastical Apologetics Apologetical literature is the defense of the right of Christianity to exist It is of Greek origin, but a transla- tion of the ancient texts of ecclesiastical apologetics which have been lost to us survive in Syriac. A seventh century manuscript containing the apology of Aristides was discovered by Rendel Harris at the Monastery of St. Catherine in Mount Sinai. Harris proved that the au- thor had addressed this Apology to Antoninus Pious and not to Hadrian as has been mentioned by Eusebius. Another apology, ascribed to St. Meliton, bishop of Sardis, is addressed to Antoninus. Its copy is thought to have been written in the seventh century. Both of these apologetical treatises have been published. Also pub- lished was the treatise entitled An Explanation of the Excellence of Christianity over Paganism by the converted Greek philosopher Ambrose. CHAPTER TWENTY Ecclesisastical Jurisprudence and Civil Law It is obvious that the Holy Church concerned itself with ecclesiastical jurisprudence in the Councils which it held and in the canons enacted by its Fathers. Canons were, therefore, made at the Councils of Ancyra (An- kara) , Neo-Caesarea, Nicea, Antioch, Laodicea, Gangara, Constantinople, Ephesus, Carthage, Sardica and Chalcedon. These canons were translated into Syriac and are preserved in old manuscripts in the libraries of the Zafaran Monastery, the Vatican, Paris and London. There are two copies of the canons of Nicea. The first contains the permanent twenty canons which were translated by Marutha of Miyafarqin at the request of Isaac the Catholicos of Ctesiphon. The second contains the canons called the Arabic because they existed in the eleventh century in this language. In our library at Hims an Arabic copy of these canons survives which dates back closely to this century. Other copies are in the British Museum, MSS. 14526 and 14528, the Zafaran Monastery, MS. 121, and the Vatican Borgiana, MS. 83. Accompanying these are the Syriac canons enacted by the Persian Bishops in the Council of Seluecia and Ctesiphon held in the year 41 0. Abbe Martin published the canons of the Councils of Ancyra, Neo-Caesarea and Nicaea and portions of the canons of the first Council of Antioch which condemned the heresy of Paul of Samosata. Paul de Lagarde published the canons of the third Council of Carthage which was attended by eighty- seven bishops in the time of St. Cyprian. The canons of this Council, which had been translated from Latin into Greek, were also translated from Greek into Syriac by Jacob of Edessa in 687. In 1875, Samuel Perry 1 published the Acts of the Second Council of Ephesus (449) according to the only two copies of the British Museum, MSS. 14530 and 12156, both of which are imperfect. They were also translated by Paul Martin into French and by Hoffmann into German. Both copies contain details of the debates in the Council recorded verbatim, not to mention the documentary proofs which could not be found in the minutes of the other Councils which have reached us. The two valuable Zafaran vellum MS. 1 44 transcribed in the tenth century 2 and MS. 245 transcribed between the eighth and ninth century, as well as the Paris MS. 62, contain canons included in a letter of the Italian bish- ops to the bishop of the East, i.e., of Antioch. These MSS. also contain canons derived from the episdes of IgnaUus the Illuminator, a summary of the letter of Peter of Alexandria about those who renounce their faith under duress, questions answered by Timothy of Alexandria and episdes of Athanasius of Alexandria by Basilius, Gregory Nazianzen, Damasus and Gregory of Nyssan containing a few canons, forty-five canons en- acted by the Orthodox bishops, seven questions an- swered by the bishops Constantine, Antonine, Thomas, Pelagius and Eustathius in the third decade of die sixth century, eight canons included in the letter of the Fathers to two priests in Cililia both named Paul, from canons included in a letter by Constantine bishop of Loadicea to Anba Marcus the Isaurian, eleven canons contained by the letter of a bishop to some of his friends, and five canons enacted by Theodosius of Alexandria and twelve canons enacted by Basilius for the monks. 1 Furthermore, the two former Zafaran manuscripts con- tain the canons made by Rabula, metropolitan ofEdessa, for monks and priests, the canons ofjohn of Talla and Sergius bar Qasir and the numerous answers ofjacob of Edessa to the different problems presented to him by some of his contemporaries. These manuscripts are to a small extent, incomplete. Our library at Hims contains a unique and valuable copy completed in 1204. It is comprised of the Testa- ment of Our Lord, the apocryphal canons of the Aposdes, known as the DidascaliaApostolorum, canons of the lesser Councils, canons of the principal Councils of Nicaea, Constantinople, Ephesus and Chalcedon, canons of the 47 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences Syrian Synods, namely the Synod of the Monastery of Mar Matta (St Matthew) held at the beginning of November 628 in which Marutha of Takrit and his bishops made twenty-four canons; the Synod of Kafmabu in the province of Saruj held byjuijis (George), patri- arch of Antioch in 785 and which issued twenty two canons; the Synod of Beth Batin in the province of Harran held by Cyriacus patriarch of Antioch in 794 in which he (the Patriarch) enacted forty-six canons; the Synod of Harran held by the same Patriarch and issued twenty-six canons; the Synod of al-Raqqa (Callinicus) held by the Patriarch Dionysius I of Tall Mahre in October 818, and in which he enacted twelve canons; the Synod of the Monastery of Mar Shila near Saruj held in 846 by the Patriarch John IV issued in twenty-five canons followed by a table of the degrees of consanguin- eous relations which prohibit marriage; the Synod of Mar Zakka near al-Raqqa held by the Patriarch Ignatius II in 878 that issued twelve canons of which the first, the second and part of the third were lost; the Second Synod of Mar Shila held by the Patriarch Dionysius II in 896 which enacted twenty-five canons; the covenant made on April 22, 914 by the abbot of the Monastery of Mar Matta and his monks with two bishops of the same Monastery as well as the parishioners of the dioceses of Nineveh, Mosul, Banuhadra and Marga for Christophorus Sergius II of Takrit, bishop of the Mon- astery of Mar Matta, Nineveh and Mosul in their oppo- sition of the Maphrian Denha III; the Synod of Mar Hananya in Mardin held by Mar Yuhanna (John), bishop of Mardin in 1 156 and attended by the Maphrian Ignatius I, and few bishops who issued forty canons of which the fourteenth and seventeenth canons were dropped from this copy; and thirty-one canons made by John for the Monastery of Mar Hananya and all the monasteries of its diocese. 4 This manuscript also con- tains a tract on the division of inheritance according to the Islamic Sharia as well as the manumission of slaves in nineteen pages, the hundred canons of Christian Kings, the laws of the emperors Constantine.Theodosius and Leo, one hundred fifty-seven in number covering fifty-one pages; a treatise on the policy of the Church to consolidate peace in twelve pages and twelve questions and their answers by Patriarch Cyriacus. Of this signifi- cant collection nothing could be found in the libraries of the West except the canons of Patriarch Cyriacus. 5 In the East we found only few canons of Patriarch Jurj is (George) in the copy of Basibrina which was lost in World War I, but a second copy is preserved in our library. Another manuscript in the Zafaran Monastery contains twenty-four selected canons abridged from the canons of the Synod of the Monastery of Mar Hananya. According to Bar Hebraeus, the Patriarch John bar Shushan made twenty-four canons for himself and the bishops, which we believe have been lost except the nineteenth canon. Also, lost to us are the twenty-nine canons issued by Michael the Great at the Monastery of Mar Hananya as well as the twelve canons which he enacted for the monks of the Monastery of Mar Matta, the seven canons issued by the Patriarch John XIII bar Madani which have been mentioned, particularly the seven canons from our former collection. 6 Further- more, some of the Easterners alluded to civil laws enacted by Ambrosius of Milan at the request of the Emperor Valan tinus for the governors of the provinces. In his noble book, the Hudorye (Nomocanon), Bar Hebraeus summarized the ecclesiastical and civil can- ons. The book is divided into forty chapters in which the author included the lost canons of George, bishop of the Arabs (d. 725) as well as those made by Michael the Great. He also included the eight canons of the Synod of Kafrtut held by the Patriarchjohn IV in February 869 to regulate the relations between the Apostolic See and the maphrian of the East. To these he added unknown canons, some of which are of his own composition. He elaborated and excelled in writing his chapters on the civil laws to which he added his own juristic opinions which rendered his book a constitution for the church. In the following generations, Ignatius bar Wuhayb, patriarch of Mardin, issued in 1304 ten insignificant canons; Patriarch Dawud Shah made three canons for the diocese of Hattakh in 1576; 7 Patriarch Peter IV issued ordinances and canons for the administration of the Church of Malabar in India in the Synod of Mollamtortiin 1877; PatriarchAbd Allah II made thirty- nine canons in the Synod of Alway in Malabar in August 1911. Finally, we made one hundred and forty-four canons in both Arabic and Syriac in the first Synod which we held at Hims in February 1933. 8 CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE Ascetic Books When monasticism and monastic orders spread, as is known, in the Syrian Church, theplantoffaithwas in its prime and hundreds of solitary cells and monasteries were established in every region and land filling the mountains and plains, it became necessary to set up rules, ordinances and laws for the organization of these cells and monasteries. It was also necessary to write ascetic literature to nourish and lead thousands of ascetics in the straight path of the authors of this literature. Because of their literary merits and elo- quence, these works were recognized as part of the Syriac literature. These works are: 1) The Homilies of the Persian Bishop Aphrahat written between 337 and 345 and divided into twenty- three theological and ascetic treatises. 2) The Book of Perfect Life and the Explanation of the 48 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences Commandments of Our Lord originally consisted of thirty theological and ascetic treatises. MS. 180 of the Jerusalem Library contains a unique imperfect and misarranged old copy of this book transcribed in the ninth century in the Estrangelo script on vellum. Due to the ignorance of the binder, this already imperfect copy also became misarranged. Two-thirds of it has been lost and only one hundred and eighty-two pages survive containing the following: Treatise No. 8 on those who give to the poor all they possess; Treatise No. 9 on righteousness and the love of the righteous and the prophets; Treatise No. 10 on the benefit we gain when we endure hardships as when we do good (the latter also discusses the fasting of the body and the soul); Treatise No. 11 on heeding the scriptures; Treatise No. 12 on the open and the private worship in the Church; Treatise No. 13 on righteous conduct; Treatise No. 14 on the righteous and the perfect; Treatise No. 15 on Adam’s process of generation; 1 Treatise No. 1 7 on the Passion of Our Lord through which we gained salvation; Treatise No. 19 on the excellence of the path of perfection; Treatise No. 20 on the great obstacles which stand in the way of the City of Our Lord; Treatise No. 21 on Adam’s tree; Treatise No. 22 on the fact that religious obligations cannot save those who perform them; Treatise No. 23 on Satan, Pharaoh and the children of Israel; Treatise No. 24 on repentance; Treatise No. 25 on the terms God and Satan; Treatise No. 26 on the law which God made for Adam after he had eaten from the tree; Treatise No. 27 on the thief who was saved; Treatise No. 28 on the fact that man’s soul is not blood; Treatise No. 29 on training the body by good deeds; Treatise No. 30 on the commandments of faith and love of solitaries. In 1926 Rev. Mihaly Kmosko published this work in the third volume of the Patrologia Syriaca with its trans- lation into Latin entitled The Book of Steps. Some scholars have even called it The Book of Ladders. However, the correct name of the book is the one we formerly men- tioned as quoted from the end of the Treatise No. 30. The author of this book, as stated in its opening chapters, is anonymous. The prime statement reads; “This ascetic did not want his name to be written down and that no historian has recorded any information about him and thus we do not know his time exactly. We only know through tradition that he was a later disciple of the Apostles. We also realize from his words that he wasa pioneer scholar of Syriac.” This statement requires some consideration. The book does not precede the fourth century and that judging from its lucid and eloquent style it belongs to the fifth or sixth century. Furthermore, those disciples could have not at all lived to this era. There is, however, a marginal note on page 10 in a handwriting which I consider of the twelfth century stating that the author is Philon the Ascetic, of whom I found no information. 2 3) The diverse treatises, questions and answers by the Egyptian solitaries Bacchumius (d. 346), Antonius (d. 356) and Ammonius (d. 384) who wrote letters to the monks, Macarius the great and Egyptian (d. 390), John the Apocalyptic ascetic of Thebes (d. 390), Macarius of Alexandria (d. 394), 5 Isaiah of Scete at the end of the fourth century who composed fifteen treatises, and Euagrius Pontius (d. 399) , who was an ascetic in the Egyptian desert and the author of the Book of the Hun- dreds as well as other discourses and epistles, Moses of Abyssinia at the beginning of the fifth century, Marcus the ascetic of Tharmaka, a disciple of Chrysostom who was an ascetic in the wilderness ofjudea or in the desert of Scete. The latter wrote a book and seven discourses and died after 431 . Also, Isidore of Pelusium (al-Farma) who wrote many letters and died about the year 435, Isaac the priest of solitary cells, Shanudin who wrote epistles and homilies in the Coptic language (d. 466) , and the ascetic Isaiah II (d. 488) who moved from Scete to Gazza and was the author of the book of homilies. 4 4) The roughly three hundred and sixty questions answered by St. Basilius the Great and addressed to the monks, 5 the Book of Monastic Life by Nilus, 6 (d. 430), the recluse in Mount Sinai, who also composed twelve discourses and more than a thousand letters of which three or four are in Syriac, thirty stories written byAnba Hieronymus in the year 420, 7 discourses by Paul, bishop of Cnitos in Italy, and the friend ofjohn the Edessan about 430, and others byjohn the Recluse, John Naqar, the recluse in the mountain of Edessa, and Sergius the recluse and Thomas the solitary (d. 1146). 8 5) A book on monastic life by Gregory the Ascetic, a Persian by origin and Cypriot by residence. Gregory graduated from the School of Edessa in the time of Professor Musa and spent his days in the Izla Mountain. 9 He is thought to have lived in the second half of the fourth century. Of his books only a few treatises re- main. 10 6) The book entitled The Paradise of the Fathers by Palladius, bishop of Helenopolis (d. 425) , published by Bedjan, is divided into three parts, the first containing 69 stories, the second 41 stories and the third 1 7 stories. Among the chronicles of the ascetics it also includes wisdom by some writers. 11 Except the book of Gregory and the one entitled The Perfect Life all of the former works were translated from Greek into Syriac. Also should be excepted the letters of Antoniusand Shanudin which were translated from the Coptic language. These works contain all that which 49 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences impresses and affects the soul. 7) The Book, of The Perfect Christian Lifeby Philoxemus of Mabug divided into thirteen discourses. It is indeed the most excellent of all the books on this subject A description of it shall be given later. 8) A book on asceticism and monasticism containing useful lessons, counsel and exhortations for those seek- ing virtuous life was written by Athanasius Abu Ghalib, the solitary bishop ofjihan (d. 1177). 9) The Ethikon or the Book of Ethics by the most learned Bar Hebraeus who wrote it in 1 279. It is divided into four tracts in which he discusses the ways of virtue in spiritual as well as physical life; it was specially meant to be for the monks and generally for the pious Christian. 10) The Book of the Dove also by Bar Hebraeus which is a short work meantto be a guide for ascetics and monks. It is divided into four treatises. 11) Thebookletentitled The Way of Truth on spiritual life written by Aziz bar Sobto, patriarch ofTur Abdin (d. 1482). 12) The book entitled The Spiritual Ship by Masud II of Zaz, patriarch ofTur Abdin (d. 1512). It contains a collection of tracts and spiritual exhortations for ascet- ics which had been compiled by his disciple Aziz of Midyat (d. 1482). 12 Mention should also be made here of other works that monks were accustomed to read which dealt espe- cially with the virtues of asceticism and orders of wor- ship. They were: The Book of Steps or the LadderhylydiWdcnms Climacus (d. 649), abbot of the Greek Malkite convent of Mount Sinai; the works of Nestorian ascetics from the end of the sixth to the end of the eighth century. These asceticswere Ibrahim ofNaphtar, Sahduna (Martyrius) , bishop of Mahuza, Arnun who joined the Malkites, Isaac of Nineveh, 13 Simon Taybutha, the ascetic physi- cian, Yuhanna bar Fankaye, Yuhanna Dalyatha (Grape- vine) , so nicknamed for living on grapevine products. 14 The latter is also surnamed the Spiritual Shaykh (Aged Man). These writers probably quoted the works of Joseph of Ahwaz and Babai the writer. None of these ascetic works became as widely spread as the book entitled The Way of Monasticism by an Isaac who was bom in Qatar and became bishop of Nineveh, and hence was called Isaac of Nineveh. This work was translated into Greek, Arabic, Ethiopian, Latin, Italian, French and German, 15 after it was revised by a few old scholars, 16 who, according to Bedjan, regarded its au- thor one of their saints. 17 One of our monks, carried too far in his illusions about this book, even went to the extent of distorting its translation to make it sound “Orthodox,” as is mentioned in an Arabic copy trans- lated by Father Jacob. 18 The (Garshuni) copy of the Jerusalem Library, written in fine hand in 1516, is a reproduction of this translation, 19 butwe know that the translation itself was made by a Greek Malkite, because it fixed the time of the author according to the calendar used then, by stating that “He (the author) was at the beginning of the seven thousandth year of the world” [sic] . However, it has been established that this work was translated from Greek into Arabic by the deacon Abd Allah ibn al-Fadl al-Antaki (d. 1052) at the request of Niocophor Abu al-Nasr. Al-Antaki divided it into thirty-five chapters and called its author a saint. Two Arabic copies of this work are extant in the convent of the Greeks in Jerusalem. 20 This Abd Allah also trans- lated from the Syriac a compendium of the Book of the Egyptian Monks and its exposition by Philoxenus of Mabug containing two hundred and fifty questions. He also translated the epistle of Philoxenus on monastical ranks addressed to one of his disciples. The former Book of the Egyptian Monks is an abridgment of The Paradise of the Fathers by Palladius and Hieronymus (Jerome), al- though it is not mentioned in the list of Philoxenus of Mabug’s Syriac works, nor do we believe it survived. However, the MS. 2421 at the formerly mentioned convent of the Greeks in Jerusalem opens with the following statement by Philoxenus of Mabug: “When I realized that this branch of knowledge is more useful and of better guidance than its origin, and that it is the essence of essences, I proceeded to translate it in order to purify the tongue by reciting it at the rising and setting of the sun and polish by its reading the faculties of mind which have been rusted by sins.” This book also contained a passage by the Spiritual Shaykh. The Nestorians, too, were greatly interested in read- ing the works of Bar Hebraeus, particularly his Ethikon of which they had the oldest copy in the library of their Catholicos in the city of Maragha and which, under his supervision, was transcribed by his disciple the monk- priest Joseph in 1292. 22 CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO Books of General History In the sixth century, Syriac literature reached the height of eloquence and artistic technique. It also occupied an eminent place in rhetoric and scholastic theology. The language, too, flourished with its viva- cious expressions and old style. The century was distin- guished by its harmony and coherence of ideas, bril- liancy of minds, and efficiency of authorship. In this century appeared a series of greatly significant histori- cal works which continued until later ages. Without these historical works, many centuries would nave been left in dense darkness, and historians of civilization would have always regretted the loss of their contents. It would be unfair on our part to demand from the writers of these histories that they be conversant with the conditions of the philosophy of history which were 50 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences developed much later than their time. They were not lacking in the examination of facts, though they used very litde analysis. As to the subject of the development of civilization, it is the concern of our contemporaries who are solely responsible for it. For civilization was at the time of these historians in its beginnings and only later began to mature. In general, Syriac histories are solid, reliable, and trustworthy, and deserve all consid- eration. However, the places of criticism in them are few. These historical works are: 1 . The history of the events of Syria and Mesopotamia from 495 to 506, which is the most accurate and com- plete source of the wars of the emperor Anastas I and Qabadh the Persian. It was written in Edessa about the year 5 1 8, bu t it is ascribed by some scholars toj oshua the Stylite, and even has been published under his name. As a matter of fact, the author of this history is an anony- mous professor at the school of Edessa who was prob- ably a Malkite. 2. The anonymous history known as the History of Edessa, which covers the period from 131 B.C. to 540 A.D. Although it is brief at the beginning, it contains a very useful account of events from the third century on. It is a very accurate history and an important source of the history of both East and West. Despite his recogni- tion of the Four Councils, the author shows a tendency toward Nestorianism. 3. The Ecclesiastical History of John of Ephesus, who died around 587 is the oldest of the Syriac histories. It is divided into three parts; the first and second run from the time of Julius Caesar to 572 A.D. and the third continues the chronicle until 585. The first part is lost. Of the second, fragments only have remained and have been published. The third is contained in a manuscript transcribed in the seventh century, a few leaves of which are wanting. It was published by Cureton. Despite its disorder, caused by the misfortunes which befell the author, this work is a very accurate history. 4. Of scarcely less value is the author’s other work, endtled Biographies of Eastern Samtswritten between 565 and 566. In this work the author minutely discusses the lives of the majority of ascetics whom he personally observed. His work is, therefore, of great value. It was twice published. 5. A collection of historical works by an anonymous author containing a great part of the Ecclesiastical History of Zachariah Rhetor, bishop of Mitylene, whose Greek origin has been lost. It contains the events from 450 to 491. This collection is divided into twelve books: the story of Joseph, the history of Sylvester of Rome, the revelation of the repository of the bones of St. Stephen, the history of the People of the Cave (The Seven Sleeping Youths of Ephesus), the Henoticon of Zeno, the chronicles of the Himyarite Martyrs, the letter of Rabula of Edessa to Gemellinus, bishop of Perrhe (Farine), the description of the buildings and ornaments of Rome, the delinea- tion of the habitable world by Ptolemy, 1 the history of the churches of Egypt and Syria in the fifth and sixth centuries, the death of Theodosius, bishop of Jerusa- lem, and the life story of Isaiah the Ascetic. 6. The Ecclesiastical Histories of Eusebius, Socrates, and Theodoret of Cyrus which the ecclesiastical Syrian historians possessed in the fifth and early sixth centu- ries, excepting the history of Sozomen. Of Eusebius’ history, we have a copy whose transcription was finished in 462 and is preserved in the library of Petersburg. The translation of this history which has been twice pub- lished 2 is distinguished for its accuracy. Moreover, the many important differences between it and the existing Greek text make it preferable to the latter, whose oldest copy was transcribed in the ninth century. 5 The MS. 941 (British Museum) contains fifteen chapters of Theodoret’s Ecclesiastical History. The Chronicle of Eusebius was rendered into Syriac by Jacob of Edessa. 7. The history of Cyrus, the priest of Saruj or Batnan, containing events from 565 to 588 which has been lost to us. 8. The Chronicle of Jacob of Edessa. After revising the Chronicle of Eusebius, Jacob’s design was to continue it in his compendium history from the twentieth year of the reign of Constantine the Great until 692. Michael the Great made much use of this history, of which sixty- seven pages only remain, published by Brooks. 9. The annals by the stylite ascetic John of Atharb (d. 738). 10 - 12. Three chronicles composed in the eighth century by Moses of Inhil, Daniel bar Musa of Tur Abdin and Yuhanna bar Samuel in the Western part of al-Sham. 1 3. A lengthy gen eral eccle siastical an d civil chronicle from the Creation to the year 775 A.D. written by a monk from the convent of Zuqnin in four books. The first runs from Adam to Constantine the Great; the second from Constantine to Theodosius the Less; the third is interrupted at the time of Justin II, whose sources shall be discussed later; and the fourth contin- ued the chronicle from 599 to 775. In this work the author elaborated the calamities which befell the lands of the Eastduring the Umayyad and part of the Abbasid eras. Assemani had erroneously ascribed this work to Dionysius of Tall Mahre, and his error was copied by later scholars who quoted him. The truth about the authorship was discovered in our time. 14. A significant historical collection, mostly pub- lished by Brooks under the title Chronica Minor am 1903. This collection comprises four parts taken from a tran- scribed manuscript in the eighth and ninth centuries, a few folios of which are wanting. The first part, and the largest, ends with the year 641; the second in 570; the third in 636; and the fourth in 529. They are followed by a synopsis of the history of the Councils up to the Council of Chalcedon, a table of the Umayyad Caliphs, and an important tract of the Arab conquest stating that the battle of the Yarmuk took place on August 20, 636. Half of this tract has been effaced by time. 4 This collec- 51 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences tion also contains fragments of a compendium history written by a Palestinian Maronite author around the eighth century. These fragments cover the events in the time of Muawiya I, which could also be found in the history of Theophane, with slight difference. They also contain a chronicle written by a monk from the convent of Qartamin which extends to the year 846 and whose copy was transcribed in the tenth century as well as fragments by an anonymous author covering the period from 754 to 81 3. 5 15. An elaborate short history written by a monk from Qartamin. This history which extends to the year 822 also covers portions of the history of the monastery of Qartamin and its abbots, published by this writer in Paris in 1914. 16. The Chronography of the erudite Dionysius of Tall Mahre, patriarch of Antioch, covering the period from 583 to 843. It is divided into sixteen books which, in turn, are subdivided into chapters. Michael the Great and Bar Hebraeus leaned heavily on this work of which five pages only have remained and were published by Assemani. 17. A lost ecclesiastical history composed by Moses bar Kifa, metropolitan of Baremman and Mosul, who died in 903. 18. The Chronicle of deacon Simon of Nisibin. 19-21. Three short chronicles written by Ignatius, metropolitan of Melitene (d. 1064), Elijah, bishop of Kesum (d. 1 1 71 ) and Dionysius bar Salibi, metropolitan of Amid (d. 1171). 22. The Chronicle of Michael the Great , patriarch of Antioch, which is a general ecclesiastical as well as a profane history running from the creation of the world to 1 196 A.D. It falls into four thick volumes, each page of which contains three columns. The first column contains the civil history; the second the ecclesiastical history; and the third is devoted to extraordinary natu- ral phenomena and other matters. One of the advan- tages of this chronicle is that (he author relied on many important sources and quoted many chronicles which otherwise would have been lost This chronicle was published by the Rev. Jean B. Chabot in a French translation of the sole copy possessed by the Syrian Church of Edessa. 23. The Civil and Ecclesiastical History of the anony- mous Edessene author in two volumes. The first vol- ume, in which the author distinguished the profane from the ecclesiastical history, runs from the time of Constantine to 1234. It was published twice. The au- thor, an Edessene cleric who was still living between 1187 and 1234, is to be commended for his excellent composition, accuracy, and solidity of style. He also wrote another ecclesiastical history which has been lost. 24 - 26. The most learned Bar Hebraeus possesses an extensive reputation as a historian. The following three excellent histories raise him to the standard of top-level historians. They are: 1 . The Chronography from the Creation to 1 285 A.D., in which he abridged the history of Michael the Great, enriched it with useful historical information, and con- tinued it to his own time, using Syriac, Arabic and Persian sources. Later, it was continued to 1296 by his brother al-Safi. 6 2. Tarikh Mukhtasar al-Duwal (Compendium History of Dynasties), written in eloquent Arabic with a free abridgement from his Syriac Chronography.' 1 3. The Ecclesiastical History in two books. 8 The first book contains the history of the Patriarchs of Antioch, preceded by a table of the names of the chief priests of the Old Testament. The second contains the history of Catholici and Maphrians of the East as well as Nestorian Catholici both of which end with the 1285. 27. Short and crudely written appendages to the Chronography as well as the Ecclesiastical History from 1 285 to 1496. The author of these appendages continued briefly the succession of Patriarchs and Maphrians, by adding to them short biographies. Also, he related the invasions of the Huns, the Persians, and the Mongols against Diyarbakr from 1394 to 1402, the calamities inflicted by Timur Khan (Tamerlane) uponTurAbdin ( 1 395-1 403) , the murder of Nawruz, Qazan ’s war against the Egyptians in al-Sham in 1298, and the events of Tur Abdin and its environs from 1394 to 1493. These ap- pendages were most likely compiled by the two priests Isaiah and Addai of Basibrina because of their elabora- tion on the chronicle of their country, Tur Abdin; especially, Basibrina, and also judging from their com- position and style with which we are familiar. These appendages, except for the one relating to the murder of Nawruz, have been published. 28. The author of this book has composed five Syriac historical works as follows: 9 1 ) History of the Patriarchs of Antioch and the Maphrians of the East from 1493 to the present; 2) Table containing the names, genealogy and short biographies of 780 bishops of the Syrian dioceses from the year 1200 A.D. to the present; 3) The Ecclesiastical History of Tur Abdin from 1365 to the present; 4) A Compendium Ecclesiastical History from V28& to the present; 5) An ecclesiastical as well as profane chronicle from 1905 to the present. CHAPTER TWENTY-THREE Private History Apart from general historical works, Syrian authors composed private histories such as the extensive life- stories and biographies of saints and illustrious church 52 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences dignitaries from 488 to 1146. Among these dignitaries are Peter the Iberian, Jacob of Saruj, Philoxenus of Mabug, Severus of Antioch, John of Talla, John bar Aphtonya, Ahudemeh, Jacob Baradaeus, Athanasius I, Severus of Samosata, Marutha of Takrit, Gabriel of Qartamin, Theodotus of Amid, Jacob of Edessa, Simon of Zaytun, John VIII, bar Abdun, and the solitary Tho- mas of Shamrin. An account of them will be given later. In this chapter we shall discuss the history of the Himyarite martyrs as well as seven biographies (except- ing the fourth one) of famous dignitaries which have come down to us. They are: 1 ) History of the Orthodox Arab Himyarite male and female martyrs including the names and chronicles of 472 of them who had been tortured first by Dhu-Nuwas and then by Masruq the Jewish King in Najran between 520 and 524. We think that this unique and interesting work was written in the middle of the sixth century. 2) A short biography of Severus Moses bar Kifa, metropolitan of Baremman (d. 903) , a copy of which is incorporated in his book, The Reasons of Festivals or Festal Homilies for the Whole Year along with other homilies. 1 3) The biography of John, metropolitan of Mardin (1125-1165), composed shordy after his time and in- cluding his noble deeds. It also contains the names of the monasteries and churches which he builtorremod- eled, thus enhancing the prestige of the diocese. Only three copies remained of this long biography; one is in the Vatican, MS. 96 published by Assemani, the second, imperfect, is at our library in Hims and was transcribed in 1602, and the third is a short copy contained in MS. 297 at the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris which we have abridged, translated into Arabic and published with much additional information in our book Nuzhat al-Adhhan fi Tarikh Dayr al-Zafaran, the History of the Zafaran Monastery (pp. 5 2-62). 2 Another short version of this biography is contained in MS. 297 of the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. 4) A treatise composed by Michael the Great contain- ing the biography of Dionysius Jacob bar Salibi, metro- politan of Amid (d. 11 71), his works and feats. This treatise which Michael mentioned in his chronicle (vol- ume 2, p. 699) has been lost to us. 5-6) Two biographies of the Maphrians of the East Gregorius bar Hebraeus and his brother Barsoum al- Safi composed in the dodecasyllable me ter (the Sarujite meter) by Gabriel, metropolitan of the Jazira (1288- 1295), in 145 pages. 7) An elaborate biography of Patriarch John XIV, known as ibn Shay Allah (d. 1493), composed by some of his disciples in 1497 in 15 pages. 3 There is also another biography of him which is longer than the one incorporated by the appendage of the Ecclesiastical History. 4 8) The biography of Masud II ofZaz, patriarch ofTur Abdin from his birth in 1431 until he became bishop in 1482, written by his disciple the monk Aziz of Midyatin eight pages. 5 Appended to it is the account of his investiture as the arch-abbot of the monasteries ofTur Abdin and his reply to it. 6 CHAPTER TWENTY-FOUR Diverse Historical Tracts In many different manuscripts we have found more than sixty Syriac historical tracts comprised of about two hundred and sixty pages, some of which relate to the First and Middle Ages (255-1300) and are not incorpo- rated by history books while the others relate to later periods, i.e., from 1300 to the twentieth century. Most of these tracts are written in a good style, but a few are of mediocre style, and eight are of poor and imperfect style. As these tracts are considered historical docu- ments, we thought it profitable to give a brief account of each one of them as follows: 1 ) A list con tain ing the names of 87 bishops who held the first Council of Carthage in 255 A. D., the 13 bishops of the Council of Ancyra, the 22 bishops of the Council of Neo-Caesarea held in 314, the 29 bishops of the Council of Antioch held in 341, and the 16 bishops of the Council of Gangara held in 364 1 2) The rebuilding of the Monastery of Mar Basus by Peter ibn Yusuf of Hims about 480 A.D. 2 3) The account of John III, patriarch of Antioch, about the false ordinations instituted by the Julianists from 549 to 587 3 and a letter by eight Orthodox bishops to the monasteries of the province of Amid around 532. 4 4) One hundred and ninety monasteries of the land of al-Sham particularly its southern Arab province be- tween 560 and 570. 5 5) The Synod of Mar Matta (St. Matthews Monastery) and the signatures of its members in 628.® 6) The names of about seventy bishops who lived in the sixth, seventh and eighth centuries whose names were mentioned in the Book of Life of Zaz. 7) The purchase of Dayr al-Suryan (the Monastery of the Syrians) in Egypt in the middle of the sixth century. 7 8) Signatures of the forty-eight bishops who attended the Council of al-Raqqa in 81 8. 8 9) The opposition of the monks of Mar Matta Mon- astery and the inhabitants of Nineveh to Maphrian Denha III in 914. 10) The building of the churches of the Virgin, the Apostles and Ahudemeh in 1046 by the deacon Theodorus of Takrit. 9 11) The immigration of seventy monks to the Syrian Monastery in Egypt and the care taken of its library by the monk Barsoum of Marash in 1084. 10 53 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences 12) The invasion of the Turks of the Monastery of Qartamin in 1100. 11 13) The chronicles of three bishops of Jerusalem by the monk Michael ofMarash in 1138. 12 14) The biography of Ignatius III bar Kaddana writ- ten by his successor Ignatius Romanus in 1138. 13 15) The calamity of Edessa in 1144, the second crusade and the feats of Ignatius Romanus by Ignatius V Sahdo, metropolitan ofjerusalem, which he recorded in 1146. 14 16) Building of the Altar of the Monastery of St. Bahnam in 1 164 15 and the building of Mar Gewargis (George) Monastery in Mardin by the deacon Abu Ali in 1169. 16 17) The exploits of AI Tuma of Basi'brina and their contribution to their village, 1166. 17 18) The works of Bar Salibi (d. Il7l). 18 19) The letter of Bar Wahbun to the Patriarch Michael about 1186. 20) The epidemic which caused the death of thirty- five monks of the monastery of Qartamin in 1199. 21) The ordination ofjohn XII and his visit to Amid in 1209 written by himself. 19 22) The chronicles of Mina, metropolitan of Amid, and his family as well as the destruction of four churches composed by the two monks Abu al-Faraj ibn Abi Said al- Amidi and Bacchus of Beth Khudayda between 1206 and 1 224. 20 23) The covenant given by Ignatius III to Basilius Yusuf, metropolitan of Khabur, in 1231. 24) An account of some Tatar invasions written by the priest Yeshu of Hisn Kifa in 1235 and Tamerlane’s destruction ofal-Sham (Syria) by Cyril, metropolitan of Cyprus, in 1401. 21 25) The building of the Monastery of Mar Abai and the Monastery of al-Amud (St. Michael in Mardin) by the Rabban Musa bar Hamdan as well as the churches of Diralya, Dunaysar, Qellith and Rumania between 1250 and 1257. 22 26) Chronographical tractates from 1257 to 1373. 25 27) The obituaries of nearly a hundred patriarchs, maphrians and bishops from 1283 to the present, in- cluding two obituaries written in 591 and 903. 24 28) Table containing the bishops under Patriarch Nimrud in 1292. 25 29) A treatise on the two Hebraeus brothers by the deacon Bahnam Habbo Kanni in 1292. 26 30) The proclamation of Michael II to the dioceses in the land of the Greeks in 1295. 31) The Mongol’s invasion of Mosul, Arbil and the Monastery of Mar Bahnam in 1295. 27 32) The war of the Mongolian Kings, Argon and Qazan, against the Egyptian armies. Also the exploits of the Maphrian Barsoum al-Safi written in 1300. 28 33) The election of Patriarch Ismail in 1333. 29 34) An account of the pillage of the church of the Forty Martyrs in Mardin in 1333 written by the monk Yeshu bar Khayrun. 30 35) The destiny of church vessels as well as the books of the patriarchal convent of Mar Barsoum written by the monk Ibrahim of Mardin as related by the priest Aaron of Arzenjan in 1365. 36) An account of the calamity of the monk Daniel of Mardin written by himself in 1382. 51 37) Tamerlane’s invasion of the Monastery of Qartamin. Also the names of the bishops and the forty monks who suffocated from smoke in 1 394. 32 38) The genealogies and chronicles of the Patriarch Ibrahim II, Bahnam, Khalaf, Yuhanna XIV, Nuh, Yeshu I and the Maphrian Barsoum al-Madani, mostly of their own composition from the year 1400 to 1518. 39) The calamities which afflicted the Christians in Kharput, Melitene in the years 1311, 1399, and 1451 recorded by Joseph, metropolitan of Kharput and Karkar, and others. 33 40) The account of the death of Dionysius Malke Zuqaqi I, metropolitan of Madan, in 1465, composed by his disciple. 41) The virtues of the ascetics of Tur Abdin written by Dawud of Hims in 1 466. M 42) The noble deeds of George, bishop of the Mon- astery of Qartamin, which happened in Jerusalem in 1490, together with the deeds of Ibrahim Awad, metro- politan of Hisn Kifa which took place at the Monastery of the Cross. 35 43) The chronicles of Dawud of Hims of himself as well as of the Patriarch Jacob I shortly before 1500. 36 44) The political events of Mesopotamia together with the conditions of the bishops and monks of Tur Abdin from the years 1501 to 1510 recorded by the monk Aziz of Midyat in four useful treatises. 37 45) A table of the Patriarchs of Antioch from 1495 to 1661 as well as the Patriarchs of Tur Abdin to the year 1571. 38 46) An account of the consecration of the Chrism by Patriarch Nuh at the church at Hims in the year 1506 written by the priest Isa of Hims. 39 47) The invasion of Tur Abdin in 1394 and 1505. 48) The Turks’ occupation of Mardin in 1517 re- corded by the priest Simon Shumays al-Qusuri. 49) The genealogy ofjohn of Karkar, metropolitan ofjerusalem and Tripoli, and his martyrdom in 1587. 40 50) The deeds of Patriarch Dawud Shah, his death and the death of three church fathers of his own family of the House of Nur al-Din 1583-1 639 . 41 51) An account of the building of the Monastery of Mar Zakka in Karkar in the year 1588 as well as the reconciliation of the Patriarchs Pilate and Hidayat Al- lah in 1593 by Gregorius Vaness of Wank of the House of Najjar, bishop of Cappadocia and then Edessa. 42 52) The building of the Church of Mar Zayna in Qaraqosh in 1589 and 1738. 53) The biography of Ephraim of Wank, metropoli- tan of Hattakh, together with the conditions of some 54 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences monasteries as well as the famine in his time from his own composition, 1638-1661. 54) A compendium of the History of the Malabar Church from the Middle of the seventeenth century to the year 1877 recorded by some Malabari priests. 43 55) An account of the chronicles of Patriarchs, par- ticularly Juijis II (George) from 1672-1806. 56) The invasion ofTur Abdin in l7l0written by the priest John of Basibrina. 57) The feats of the patriarchs George II, and Isaac containing the building of churches and monasteries, written by the Bishop Isa and the Chorepiscopus Yeshu al-Qusuri in 1713. 44 58) The siege of Kirkuk and Mosul by the Persian King Tahmasp in 1743 by the priest Habash Jumua of Beth Khudayda as well as the famine and the heavy snow which struck Mosul and its environs in 1 757 recorded by the deacon Matta Najjar of Beth Khudayda. 45 59) The journey of Maphrian Shukr Allah Qasabji of Aleppo to Malabar in 1751, of his own composition. 60) The History of the See of Antioch from 1782 to 1785 by Abd Allah Shadyan, metropolitan ofDamascus. 61) The invasion of Azekh and Isfis by the Prince of Rowanduz in 1834 recorded by the Bishop George. 62) The chronicle of Patriarch Elias II, andjoiakim of Hbab, metropolitan of Malabar, to the year 1845 composed byjoiakim himself. 63) The invasion of Seertand Tur Abdin by Izz al-Din Shir and Mansur Beg the Bakhtis recorded by the priest Mirza of Meddo in 1855. 64) The building of the church of Mar Matta (St. Matthew’s Monastery) in 1 858 and the murder of Bishop Denha in 1871 written by the priest Gurgis of Bashiqa originally from Hbab in Tur Abdin. 65) The chronicles of Patriarch Jacob II, from 1866 to 1871 composed by his secretary the later Patriarch Abd Allah II. 66) The massacre of 1 895 in Diyarbakr written by the priest Ephraim of Midyat. 67) The autobiography of Bishop Paul, the patriar- chal representative in Constantinople, which he com- posed in 1912. CHAPTER TWENTY-FIVE The Lives of Martyrs and Saints As a branch of history, the accounts of the lives of martyrs and saints have a special place in all Christian literature, first, because they are copious, and second, because they were written by masterful authors. The Syriac legacy is full of them. These accounts are of two kinds, the firstwritten in Syriac in the Eastern countries of Mesopotamia, Persia, and some parts of the country of al-Sham (Syria); the second translated from the Greek prevailed in Euphrates, Syria and the rest of the country of al-Sham, the land of the Byzantines and Egypt, at the time when Greek was the literary language and had captured the imagination of non-Greek writ- ers. Some of these lives were recorded either in the time of the saints and martyrs or shortly thereafter, and are called “biographies” because they relate the exactevents with no addition or deduction. Others are called “sto- ries” written at a much later period and are not free from embellishment and additions which seeped through narrations and tradition. However, impartial scholarly criticism and good taste are responsible for the sifting, giving more weight or disparaging of these stories and for distinguishing the good from the bad. The biographies which had been recorded in their own time were those of Guriyya, Shamuna, Habib, the martyrs of Samosata, the Palestinian martyrs written by Eusebius of Caesarea, the majority of the Persian mar- tyrs during the persecution of Shapur II, nicknamed “He of the Shoulders,” the fifth century martyrs, except- ing the anecdotes of Mar Bahnam, Basus and Abd al- Masih (Ashir ) . Those which were written at a much later period were the account of the struggle of Sharbil, his sister Babuy, and Barsmayya, bishop of Edessa, around the year 105. They were written after the Council of Nicaea in the middle of the fourth century, because the author openly states “Cosubstan tial wi th Father, ” a term unknown in Christendom before that Council. He also alluded to a saying of the Church Fathers which does notsynchronizewiththatearly period, but rather agrees with the language of the dialogue between the martyr and thejudge. Similarly, the story of Shamuna (Shmuni), the Maccabees, her children, and Lazarus the Priest who was martyred under the tyrant King Antiochus Epiphanes IV (175-164 B.C.) was recorded long after the Christian era. However, time was not opportune for writers of the early period to record the struggle of their martyrs. The scanty surviving histories were mostly drawn from the records of the Courts which tried those martyrs, while even scantier were the histories which had been written at the close of the third and the beginning of the fourth century. The conditions for recording the Lives of the Saints were the same. Among the records are the original biography of Eusebius of Samosata, written in a smooth and eloquent style by his contemporaries; the biogra- phy of Rabula of Edessa, which is the most eloquent, beautiful, and well-written of all biographies; and the biography ofjohn bar Aphtonya, which is characterized with eloquence, and immaculate style; the life story of Pelagia the pen iten t harlot dancer of An tioch written by the deaconjacob as well as the life stories ofTheodosius, bishop ofjerusalem, Peter the Iberian, Isaiah the Egyp- 55 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences tian ascetic of the country of Gazza, three biographies of Severus of Antioch, and fifty anecdotes of the Eastern ascetics (including some bishops) written byjohn, bishop of Asia (Ephesus) . Into other lives of saints and martyrs authors as well as scribes interpolated far-fetched tales and legends, such as the anecdotes of the ancient ascetics of the East who shunned worldly pleasures. The East, to be sure, was not blessed with biographers of the stripe of Palladius, Rufinus, and Hieronymous who had personal incentive to record the true events of their time, except for Theodoret of Cyrus, who confined his writings to the ascetics of Cyrus and its environs and a few other individuals who wrote some biographies. It seems as if the Eastern mind, while religion had the greatest influ- ence on the souls and hearts, did not accept the life stories of saints and martyrs unless they were embel- lished with exaggeration. The Western mind was also the same in ancient times and in the Middle Ages. Of these all, the life stories of Mar Awgayn (Eugene) and his companions (which Nestorian writers in the Middle Ages embellished and enlarged and to which they added some of their compatriots who lived between the sixth and tenth centuries) as they were originally re- corded become hard to ascertain. This ugly distortion incited most of the Orientalist critics to deny the exist- ence of this ascetic (Awgayn), and even became very confused about the time in which he lived. Later, some of our Tur Abdin authors wrote down in the eighth and ninth centuries the biographies of Samuel and Simon, the establishes of the Monastery of Qartamin as well as those of its abbot Gabriel and Simon the Zaytuni who led an ascetic life in it, and later became bishop of Harran. They also bedecked them with fabulous stories. Some authors commented on these stories in the begin- ning of the twelfth century. Likewise, the life story of Mar Barsoum, the ascetic of Samosata, was garnisned with similar legends. The critic, however, has much less to say about the story of Mar Matta (St. Matthew) the ascetic and the struggle of Bahnam and his sister Sarah, which were written around the seventh century. They have also less to say about the life story of the ascetic Aaron of Saruj which Francois Nau thought was com- posed in the ninth century, and Baumstark in the seventh century. We are of the opinion that it was written before that date (the seventh century). 1 Of the lives of saints and martyrs which we could not ascertain is the story of Abhai the ascetic who came from one of the villages of Mardin. Abhai abandoned the world, became bishop of Nicaea, but had recourse to ascetic life in the mountain of Karkar and built a monastery, where he died in 455, which bore his name, but which was also known as the “Monastery of Lad- ders.” In 1 185, the Patriarch Michael the Great revised and arranged the story of Abhai, but did not touch the interpolations in order to keep the origin intact. There is also a poem in praise of Abhai said to have been composed in the twelve-syllable meter byjacob of Saruj or others. Although this bishop (Abhai) was a friend of emperor Theodosius II, according to his story, no one of the old historians bothered to mention him, even the table of the bishops of Nicaea does not include his name. Nevertheless, we do not doubt his existence and ascetic life, but doubt the time in which he lived and the activities ascribed to him during his episcopate. What should be noticed in this regard is the distor- tion by the early heretics, the malicious enemies of Christianity, of the chronicles of the righteous Apostles. These heretics fabricated stories into which they in- jected their poisonous principles under a cover which cannot be detected by the simple, but which is obvious to the intelligent. The influence of these heretics could be seen in the life stories of the Apostles Peter, Paul, John, Thomas, and particularly Matthew. These stories came down to us in Syriac or Arabic. Some of these biographies or stories are lengthy. For instance, the biography of Ibrahim Qayduni is 35 pages long, the biographies of St. Ephraim, John the Less, and Chrysostom are 40 pages each, those of Eusebius of Samosata and Rabula are 53 pages each, those of Pacchomius, Abhai, Aho, and the Zaytuni are 58 pages each, that of Qaradagh is 65 pages, of John of Talla 70 pages, of Saraphion 78 pages, of Simon bar Sabbai 79 pages, of Theodotus 80 pages, of Aaron 16 chapters, of St. Antonius 120 pages, of Simon the Stylite 143 pages, of Peter the Iberian 144 pages, and that of Barsoum is 180 pages. Some of these biographies, such as those of the Iberian, Marutha of Takrit, and Theodotus, are fraught with historical, geographical, and ritual profits which enhance their literary value. Wc may divide this chapter into four parts: SECTION ONE The Lives of the Martyrs of Edessa, Samosata and Persia Few are the acts written in Syriac of the Christian martyrs, the heroes who fought for the cause of Chris- tianity in Western Mesopotamia and Euphrates Syria during the persecution of the Roman emperors, be- cause they were mostly written in Greek. They are: The two life stories of Sharbil and Barsmayya written in the middle of the fourth century; the account of the struggle of Guriyya, Shamuna and Habib of Edessa recorded by an eye witness named Theophile in 307 or 308 and contained expressions which were legally and officially practised. Jacob of Saruj composed two poems in their praise. Besides, we have the life stories of Azazel of Samosata dated 304 together with the martyrs of Samosata Hipparchus and Philotheus and their five companions dated 308. On the other hand, the acts of the Persian martyrs 56 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences which began after the persecutions of the Roman Em- pire were about to abate are many. The most famous of these acts are: 1) The acts of the two brothers Ador-Baruh and Mayhar Narsi and their sister Mahdokht in the environs of Kirkuk in 318 composed by Gabriel the Chaldean monk of Beth Abi (The Monastery of the Thicket) in the first half of the eighth century. 2) The acts of Coberlaha and his sister Qazu the children of King Shabur and that of Dadu in 332 composed by the two priests Dad Yeshu and Abd Yeshu. 3) The acts of Sabur’ bishop of Niqatur and Isaac, bishop of Beth Selukh, Mana Ibrahim and Simon in 339. 1 4) The act of Zebina, Lazarus, Marut, Narsi, Elijah, Mahri, Habib, Saba, Sham pita, Yunan (Jonah) and Brikh Yeshu in 327 recorded by Isaiah bar Hadabu of Arzun who was an eye witness. 5) The history of Beth Selukh in which the author mentions Mana the bishop and the nuns Thecla, Tang, Tatun, Mama, Mezika and Anna. To Marutha of Takrit is ascribed the composition of the acts of the martyrs under Shapur II (He of the Shoulders) . Furthermore, Mari ibn Sulayman, a twelfth century historian and the deacon Amr ibn Matta al- Tyrhani (d. 1340) 2 relate that Ahi Catholicos of Ctesiphon (al-Madain) from 410 to 415 composed sto- ries of the Persian martyrs and wrote a book on their martyrdom before he became catholicos according to the first and after he became catholicos according to the second. However, we do not know whether any part of these writings has been preserved. The stories are: the account of the struggle of Simon bar Sabbai (Son of the Dyers) the catholicos; Jidyab and Sabina, bishops of Beth Laphet; Yuhanna, bishop of Hormizd-Ardashir; Bolida, bishop of the Euphrates; Yuhanna, bishop of Karkh Mishan, as well as the history of ninety-seven priests and deacons in 341. Also the martyrdom of Koshtazad the King’s chamberlain; Bosi, the Chief Artisan, and his daughter, Amaryaand Muqim, bishops of Beth Laphet; Hormizd, the priest of Shuster; Azad, the King’s servant; Tarbu, the sister of the catholicos, with her sister and companions. Miles, bishop ofSus, Shahdostand hisclerical companions in 342; Bar Shabya the abbot and the monks of his monastery in 342; the priest Daniel and Warda the nun in 343; Narsi, bishop of Shahr Qart, and his disciplejoseph in 344; the stories of the martyrs of Arbil and Hidyab (Adiabine) which are: Yuhanna, bishop of Arbil, and Jacob the priest in 344; Ibrahim, bishop of Hidyab in 345; the one hundred twenty martyrs of Ctesiphon and its environs in 345; Bar Baashmin, the catholicos, and his cleric companions, Hanania of Arbil in 346, Jacob the priest and his sister Mary the Nun from the village of Tall Shalila in 347; Thecla the nun and her four companions in 347; the Gaylani Martyrs, Brikh Yeshu, Abd Yeshu, Sabur, Sanatruq, Hormizd, Hadar Sabur, Halphid, Ith Alaha, Muqim, Halmadura and Phoebi in 351; Bar Hadhbshabba, the deacon of Arbil in 355; Ith Alaha and Hafsi in 356; Qaradagh, the military governor ofHidyab, in 359 whose account of martyrdom, as some believe, was written in the sixth century; the martyr captives of Bazabdi in 362; Saba the youth and his companion Abai in 363; the forty Persian martyrs including two bishops in 376; Badmea the abbot of the convent near Beth Laphet in 377; Acepsimas, bishop of Hanitha, in 378 and Joseph the priest and Ith Alaha the deacon in 379. To this list should be added the story of Bahnam, his sister Sara and their forty martyr companions around 382; the account of the martyrdom of Basus and his sister in 388 which has been lost to us but survived in a lengthy ode composed by the Patriarch Bahnam of Hidl shortly before 1 404; the story of Abd al-Masih ( Ashir) of Sinjar in 390; the martyr ascetic Phineas of Tanis at the end of the fourth century, whose story was written a long time after him, the martyrdom of Narsi the monk.Tataq and the ten martyrs of Beth Garmai, the twelve thou- sand martyrs of Kirkuk in 409; the martyrdom of Abda, bishop of Hormizd Ardashir, and his seven companions in 42 1 Jacob, who was cut to pieces in 42 1 ; Phiruz in 422; Mayhar Shabur and Phethiun in 448 and the martyr- dom of Babai, the catholicos, in 481. SECTION TWO Life-Stories of The Martyrs of Palestine, Mesopotamia, Armenia, Byzantium, Egypt and Yemen Eusebius of Caesarea wrote the history of the Pales- tinian martyrs (who numbered 467) during the tenth persecution. An abridgement of his work was translated from the Greek into Syriac shortly after its composition and it went through two editions. It suffered a great many alterations. Besides this, we have the two highly embellished and greatly exaggerated stories of the famous Marjuijis (St. George); the martyrdom of Romanus and his compan- ions in Antioch; the story of Shamuni of the Maccabees, and her sons and Lazarus the priest; the account of the martyrdom of the nun Febronia of Nisibin in 304 A.D. composed by Thomaius the nun; the story of Agripas and Parnitusand their twelve thousand companions, or according to another source the account of four thou- sand Greek and Syrians martyred in the mountains of Ahmoy also called Hasmay or Ashuma, 1 whose story is believed to be of Syriac origin; the martyrdom of Sergius and Bacchus in two copies and in whose praise Sts. Ephraim and Jacob of Saruj composed two poems; the story of the forty martyrs of Sebaste; the stories of Thecla the disciple of Paul, Sophia and her three daughters, the people of the Cave (the Sleeper Youths of Ephesus) in whose praise Jacob of Saruj composed a poem, 57 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences Babula (Babila), patriarch of Antioch in 251, Eugene and Pacilina the Romans in 253, Cyprian the bishop and Justa Pictorinus, Pictor, Nicephorus, Claudius, Deodorus, Saraphion, Papius in Carthage, Christopher the barbarian and his companions in Lycia, Lucian and Marcian, Paphos and his twenty-four thousand com- panions in the village of Magdal near Antioch in 303 whose story was written five days after their martyrdom. Other accounts immediately recorded were those of Phrobus, Tarachus, Andronicus in 303; Barbara and Juliana, Cyriacus and his mother which was written at the behest of Theodoras, bishop of Konya (Iconium), Mama and his parents, the martyrdom of Hagnes (Agnes) the Roman virgin, the stories of Placidas (also called Eustathaius) , his wife and children; Leontius and his teacher Poblius (Popillius), Yuhanna of Kafr Sania in the time ofMaximian Heracleus in 31 1 whose martyr- dom was recorded by Eutochus, the King’s secretary, and deposited in the city’s library. Later, the administra- tor of Justice, John the Roman, built a church in his name atKafr Sania in the days ofTheodosius, 2 Stratonice and Seleucus at the city of Cyzicus; 5 Theodotus in the city of Philippi in 331, two stories of Theodorus the martyr ofEuchaita in 363; Plotine (Plotinus) the bishop and confessor apostle; the story of the reputed ascetic Mar Beth Sahdi the martyr ascribed to Chrysostom. 4 We have found a poem in his praise. Orientalists however, doubt his existence and the anecdote of Simon the Aged who was martyred in the Middle Mountain. 5 We have also the stories of Mina the Egyptian who was martyred in the year 303; Paphnotius the solitary and his five hundred and forty-six martyr companions in 307; Pantaleon and his companions in 309; the martyrdom of Peter, bishop of Alexandria, in 311; Maria the Egyptian, Cosmas and Damian and their brothers in 306 (who was praised in a poem) ; the history of the Himyarite martyrs who were tortured by Dhu Nuwas and then by Masruq thejew in 5 1 9 and 524 which reached us in a unique Syriac manuscript, the story of Harith the Arab martyr the first part of which was written in Syriac by Sergius orjurjis, bishop of al-Rasafa, a contemporary of Dhu Nuwas and was later translated into Greek. SECTION THREE The Life-Stories of The Holy Apostles , Patriarchs and Bishops Following are the life-stories of the holy Apostles and men written in Syriac: 1) An account of the discovery of the head of John the Baptist and its translation to Hims in the year 453. 2) The martyrdom of Peter and Paul. 3) The story ofjohn the Evangelist and his compan- ions. 4) The life-story of Thomas the Apostle. 5) The life-story of Onesimus the disciple of Paul. 6) The life-story of Clement of Rome. 7) The life-story of Ignatius the Illuminator. 8) The life-story of Gregory Thaumaturgus. 9) The life-story of Gregory the preacher of the Armenians. 10) The life-story ofjacob of Nisibin. 11) The life-story of Nicolas, bishop of Mira. 12) The biography of Athanasius of Alexandria writ- ten by Amphilochus, bishop of Inconium (Konya). 1 3) An account of seven miracles by Basil of Caesarea recorded by his successor Aledius. 14) The life-story of Eusebius of Samosata. 15) The life-story of Gregory of Nyssa. 1 16) The life-story ofjohn Chrysostom. 2 17) The life-story of Ibrahim, bishop of Harran by Theodoret of Cyrus. 5 18) The life-story of Rabula, metropolitan ofEdessa. 19) The life-story of Dioscorus of Alexandria written by his disciple Theopistus which is not free of redundan- cies. 20) The life-story ofTheodosius of Jerusalem, writ- ten by Zachariah Rhetor, bishop of Mitylene. 21) The life-story of Peter the Iberian, bishop of Mayuma translated into Syriac from a lost Greek source. 22) The life-story ofjacob of Saruj. 23-24) Two accounts, one short and the other long, of the life of Philoxenus of Mabug, the latter of which we found in Basibrina, rendered it into Arabic and pub- lished it twice. The Syriac text was later published by Mingana. Most likely it was composed long after the death of this saint with additional information con- nected with his remains in the middle of the twelfth century. 25-27) Three biographies of Severus of Antioch, the first of which was written in Greek by Zachariah, bishop of Mitylene, in the year 515 or 516. In it Zacharias defended him by refuting the allegation and impugnations of his adversaries. This biography stops at the date of his elevation to the patriarchate. The second came from the pen ofjohn, abbot of the Monastery of Aphtonya, and it discusses his participation in doctrinal disputes in particular. It was translated into Syriac by Sergius bar Qasir, bishop of Harran. The third is short and anonymous. 4 28-29) Two biographies of John of Talla, the first written by John of Asia and the second written in more details by his companion, Elijah the monk. 30) The life-story of Simon of Beth Arsham, the Persian contestant byjohn of Asia. 31) The life-story of Ahudeme, the catholicos as- cribed to Marutha of Takrit. 5 32-33) Two biographies ofjacob Baradaeus, the first written byjohn of Asia, and the second, which is more detailed, written after 622 or 741 A.D. 34) The history of John of Gazza, bishop of 58 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences Hephaestus in Egypt 35) The history of Kashish, bishop of the island of Chios. 36) The life-story of Athanasius I, patriarch of Antioch. 6 37) The life-story of Athanasius’ brother, Severus, metropolitan of Samosata. 7 38) The biography of Marutha of Takrit by his succes- sor, Maphrian Denha. 8 39) The life-story of Gabriel, bishop of Qartamin, by a monk from his convent. 9 40) The life-story of Theodotus of Amid written by the priest Simon of Samosata as related to him by his disciple, Joseph the monk. 10 41) The biography of Jacob of Edessa. 11 42) The life-story of Abhai, bishop of Nicaea 43) The life-story of Simon bar Zaytuni, bishop of Harran, by a monk in the monastery of Qartamin. 12 44) The story of Hanania, metropolitan of Mardin and Kafartut. 15 45) The biography of John VIII bar Abdun the confessor, patriarch of Antioch (d. 1031). 14 We also have short and unauthenticated biographies of Dionysius the Areopagite, Julius of Rome, Gregory Nazianzen, Gregory of Nyssa, Cyril of Alexandria, all of which, with other biographies have been erroneously ascribed to Jacob of Edessa. SECTION FOUR The Life-Stories of Ascetics, Anchorites and Others Following are surviving life-stories of Syrian ascetics written in Syriac: 1 ) The life-story of Ibrahim Qayduni which has been erroneously ascribed to St. Ephraim. 1 2) The life-story of Julian the Aged as related by his disciple Acacius, metropolitan of Aleppo. 2 3-4) Two accounts of the life of St Ephraim written long after his time with added information. 5 5) The life-story of Rubil the ascetic who lived in the monastery of Umrin. 4 6) The life-story of Aaron, the ascetic of Saruj, in the lands of Claudia (d. 389) written by his disciple Paul. 5 7) The life-story of Awgayn (Eugene) the Copt 8) The story of Matta (Matthew) the ascetic in the mountain of al-Phaph at the end of the fourth century. 6 9) The life-story of Ibrahim the Ascetic who lived in the Lofty Mountain (d. 409) by his disciple, Bishop Stephen. 7 10) The story of Samuel al-Mashtini in 409. 8 11) The life story of the ascetic physician Demete of Amid (d. ca 410) written long after his death. 9 12) The life-story of Malke of Qulzum (Clysma) written far after his time. 13) Jacob the recluse in the convent of Salh (d. 421). 10 14) The story of Simon of Qartamin (d. 433). 11 15) The story of Asius (Asya) the ascetic. 12 16) The story of Isaiah of Aleppo. 1 7) The story of Daniel ofjalsh (d. 439) written by St. Jacob the Doctor. 15 1 8) The story of Aho (c. 457) written expertly shortly after his time about the sixth century. 14 19) The story of Simon the Stylite most likely written by Cosmas the priest. It contains his miracles. Jacob of Saruj composed two poems in praise of Simon the Stylite. 20) The life-story of Barsoum, chief of the ascetics (d. 458), written by his disciple Samuel the priest. 15 21) The story of Hanania (d. 500) composed by Jacob of Saruj. 16 22) The life-story of Simon of Kafr Abdin. 17 23) The story of Talya the ascetic youth preserved in the unique manuscript 535 in Birmingham. 24) An innovated life-story of John bar Aphtonya composed by a scholar monk of his monastery. 18 25) The life-story of Ottel from a village near the town of Doliche. 19 26) The life-story ofjohn Kafani in the Monastery of Zaz in Tur Abdin, written after the sixth century and commented upon in 1198. 20 27) The life-story of Lazarus of Harran. 21 28) The life-story of Qawma the stylite in Miyafarqin whom we believe was a seventh-century ascetic. 22 29) The life-story of Nathaniel the ascetic who is either the one mentioned in the story of Qawma or in the work of Palladius (p. 56) . His lifestory, however, was found in a unique manuscript at the Monastery of Mar Malke in Tur Abdin. 30) The life-story of Thomas the solitary (d. 1146). 25 We also have the life stories of many ascetics written byjohn of Asia from the end of the fifth century to the year 573; and eight stories ofYareth, Zia Shalita, Jonah, Eulogius, Moses, Daniel and Benjamin - but we doubt the authenticity of their doctrine, condition and time. Following is a list of the histories of the Egyptian ascetics, most of which were translated from the Greek while only a few were translated from Coptic to Syriac: 1) The story of Paul, the first of the ascetics, written by Hieronymus. 2) The life-story of Bacchmius by one of his contem- poraries. 3) The life-story of Yuhanna the ascetic who lived in a well during the persecution. 4) The life-story of Antony the Great by Athanasius of Alexandria. 5) The life-story of Macarius the Greatof Alexandria. 6) The life-story of Paul the Simple the disciple of Antonius. 24 7) The life-story of Euagrius. 25 8) The life-story of Bishwai byjohn the Less. 59 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences 9) The life-story of Saraphion. 26 10) The life-story of Isidore. 11) The life-story ofjohn the Less. 12) The life-story of Marcus ofTharmaka. 1 3) The life-story of Paul the famous ascetic from the town of Tanwah written by his disciple Ezekiel from a neighboring village. 27 14) The life-story of Daniel of Scete and the virgins who became his disciples. 28 15) The life-story of Father Daniel and Eulogius the sculptor. 29 16) The life-story of Eugenius the Egyptian. 17) The life-story of Shanudim. 50 18) The life-story ofjohn Camu excellently trans- lated from the Arabic into Syriac in the third decade of the thirteenth century except for one word which the translator mis-translated. 31 19) The life-story of the martyr ascetic Moses the Abyssinian. 32 20) The life-story of Isaiah the ascetic in the land of Gazza written by Zachariah, bishop of Mitylene. 35 21) The life-story of a deacon who was at Qanubin and a virtuous bishop who sinned and then repented. In the earlier periods of Christianity Syrian scholars translated into Syriac the history of the Egyptian fathers known as the Lau.sians by Palladius (d. 425). It was re- translated by Hannan Yeshu, the Chaldean monk of Beth Abi, in the middle of the seventh century under the title The Paradise and spread in the East. The Syrian scholars also translated the history of the monks by Rufinus of Achille (d. 412) as well as the stories of the ascetics of the Egyptian desert of Hieronymus (d. 420). The stories which have been translated from the Greek are: 1) The miracle of the Virgin in Euphemia. 2) The history of Hierotheus of Athens. 3) The history ofjohn the Roman known as the Son of the Kings. 4) The Chronicles of the sons of the nobles of Rome who abandoned the world. 5) The life-story of Archilides of Constantinople who exercised ascetism in Palestine under Gratianus, and Valentianus. Originally his story was written in Coptic. 6) The story of the two brothers Maximian and Domitian, the sons of Valentinus and Isodorus, written by the Anba Bishwai. 7) The life-story of Alexius the Roman (the Man of God) in Edessa whose story was written in the middle of the fifth century. 8) The life-story of Paul, bishop of Cnotus in Italy, who abandoned his See after holding it only two weeks to live a life of ascetism in Edessa in the time of Rabula 9) The life-story of Jacob the Wanderer. 10) The life-story of Martinianus. 11) The life-story of Grasmius who died in the begin- ning of the reign of Zeno. His story was written about the year 525. 12) The history of Xenophon the noble and his two sonsjohn and Arcadius. 1 3) The story of a solitary who dwelt in the trunk of a tree. 14) The story of Andronicus and his wife Athanasia in Antioch. 15) The story of Hananya and his wife Mary from Jericho. 16) The life-story of Eusebius of Pheonicia. 1 7) The life-story of Marcus the merchantand Gaspar the pagan who embraced Christianity. 18) The life-story of Cyrianus. 19) The life-story of Peter the Rich African Patrician who did not give alms. 20) The account of the discovery of the Cross by Helen the Queen. 21) The story of the picture of Christ drawn by the Jews at Tiberias which is in fact a message written by Philotheus the deacon. 34 The following are histories of anchorites: I ) The story of Marina, 2-3) The two stories of Leonsimus the daughter of Kings and the four hundred ascetics, 4) The life-story of Eupraxia, her parents and her holy women companions in the days of Theodosius, 5) The life-story of Pelagia the penitent dancer of Antioch with some additions, 6) The life-story of Euphrosyne the daughter of Paphnotius of Alexandria, 7) The life-story of Mary the Copt, 8) The life-story of Elaria, daughter of Zeno the King, 9) The life-story of Lucy the Virgin, 10) The story of a penitent virgin, II) The miraculous life of a virgin. The following stories whose titles we found in old manuscripts are lost to us: 1) The story of King Abgar, 2) The story of Isaac the martyr under Decius, 3) The revelations of the saints in the time of Vale- rian and Galian, 4) The story of Paul and his sister Juliana, 5) The life-story of Epiphanius of Cyprus, 6) The story of Isaac of the Monastery of Gabula whom we believe lived in the second half of the fifth century. Later, the monks of his monastery became entangled with the heresy of the Phantasiasts, 7) The life-story of Placiduna, 8) The life-story of Andrew the martyr, 9) The two accounts of the life of Euphemia the martyr, 10) Life-stories of the Gothic martyrs of whom we could find no information. In addition, the writer of the stories of Samuel and 60 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences Simon of the Monastery of Qartamin mentioned fifty ascetics who flourished in this monastery and were distinguished for their piety and the miracles they performed. The stories of these ascetics are lost to us except for that one of the formerly mentioned Talya the youth. 55 These biographies and life-stories excepting the life- stories written by Palladius and John of Ephesus, total 230 in number. The number of their pages is between 5000 and 6000. We have copied the index of these life- stories and anecdotes from six huge volumes of vellum transcribed between the tenth and the twelfth century. They are preserved in the libraries of Jerusalem, Diyarbakr, London and Berlin as well as individual copies which we found in the Zafaran Monastery, Tur Abdin, Bartulli, al-Sharfa Monastery and Azekh. We have also added to them the table of the life-stories fixed by Dawud of Amid in a copy of the Holy Bible in Basibrina transcribed from the copies of the life-stories of saints at the Monastery of Mar Barsoum and the MS. 241 of the Zafaran Monastery which was transcribed in 1000 A.D. Of these life-stories of saints, Bedjan pub- lished six volumes. CHAPTER TWENTY-SIX Chi Story Writing Story writing is old in Christian literature. For the proficiency of the Christian writers led them to traverse this field as extensively as their fertile imagination allowed. The little, however, which has reached us from this art in Syriac is a translation from the Greek. It is as follows: 1) The story of Cain’s murder of Abel written by Symmachus. 1 2) The story of the Blessed Sons of Yunadab (the Rechabites) ofjewish origin related by an ascetic named Zozimus. It was translated from the Hebrew into Greek and in turn into Syriac by Jacob of Edessa. 2 3) The story of Abraham the Hebrew Patriarch. 5 4) The story ofjoseph and his wife Asiyah (Asenath), the daughter of Potiphar the priest of the city of Oun (Heliopolis) , which had been incorporated by a pseudo- writer into parts four, five and six of the first book of the Ecclesiastical History of Zachariah Rhetor. In part four this writer mentioned a letter written by the author to Moses of Agel requesting him to translate this story from the Greek into Syriac and Moses’ reply to him. 4 It is a splendid story which the translator rendered beautifully, combining lucidity with solidness. It is com- prised of twenty-five pages. It was translated from an old copy in the possession of a man named Mar Abda, a relative to the family of Baro of Ras Ayn, and was preserved in their library. We believe that its original was written in the fourth century. The writer calls it a “Legend.” 5 5) The story of Pilate. 6) The story of the Discovery of the Cross by Protonice the wife of Claudius Caesar. 6 7) The thirty-four-page story of Sylvester the Pope of Rome and his converting and baptizing of Constantine the Great, and his disputation with the Jewish doctors who were delegated fromjudea to Rome and appeared in the presence of the Emperor and the Senators with Helen. 7 8) A fabricated historical (roman) narration which appeared in the first half of the sixth century. It contains the chronicles of Constantine the Great and his chil- dren , the biography of Eusebius, bishop of Rome ( there is no bishop of Rome of this name), his torture byjulian the Apostate and the patience ofjubanian (Jovian) Caesar. 8 From the historical point of view this narration is invalid. But because of its smooth style and the fact that it is free from Greek, it could be considered an eloquent piece of literature. In fact, it influenced the historians in the Middle Ages even the Arab historians. 9 To this narration should be added a treatise on the apostasy of Julian transcribed in the seventh century. 9) The story of Honorius Caesar and the piety and practice of ascetism which has been ascribed to him. 1 0) The story of Maurice Caesar and his assassination with his children. 10 CHAPTER TWENTY-SEVEN Philosophy Philosophy, as it is known, is a Greek science which was born in the ancient Greek colonies in Asia Minor, Sicily, southern Italy and northern Africa and which grew up in Greece itself. From the Greek fountain nations drew their knowledge, and learned men set out in quest of Greek principles until later ages. Therefore, the Syrians, Romans, Copts, and others did not have a specific philosophy, and the contributions of the phi- losophers such as al-Farabi the Turk, Ibn Sina (Avicenna) the Persian and Ibn Rushd (Averroes) the Andalusian are based on extensive translations and interpretations to which they have successfully added their own opin- ions. 1 As shall be seen later, some of our scholars had significant expositions and commentaries on Greek philosophy. However, the modern philosophical re- 61 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences naissance known as Neo-Scholasticism, most of which is the result of vigorous study of the natural sciences in which most leading European nations participated, is the product of the late sixteenth century. It is still in the process of development, and, as philosophy to the Syrians, who generally speaking were men of religious nature, was a means notan end, their chief scholars did not place great emphasis on it This statemen t applies to the rest of the sciences which we shall later discuss. This chapter shall be divided into three parts: SECTION ONE The Philosophical Writings of The Syrians in General Historians of literature opened this chapter with Mara bar Saraphion (Serapion) of Samosata, who is conjectured to have existed in the middle of the second century. He was not a Christian, but he believed in the oneness of God and considered our Lordjesus Christa sage. He is well known for his Syriac letter to his son which demonstrates the principles of his stoic philoso- phy. In his letter Mara exhorted his son to control his whims, that wealth and prestige should not influence him because they were transient and that he should seek wisdom and practice it for itis worth seeking. 1 Itwas related that a friend asked him upon seeing him laugh- ing while still jailed in a Roman prison “On your life, Mara, what makes you laugh?” Mara answered, “I am laughing at Time which throws back at me an evil I did not start” The first Christian philosophical work, however, is Bardaysan’s Laws of the Countries. Bardaysan was an Aramaean philosopher who embraced Christianity but was excommunicated for his heresy. He was well-versed in philosophical sciences and the place he occupies in Syriac literature is beyond description. Of his works nothing remained except this small book in which he discusses Fortune and Fate that he dictated to Philip, one of his disciples, or that Philip wrote as he heard it from him in 197 A.D. Bardaysan claimed that three factors affect the life of man: Nature, Fortune and Will. Fortune is the power with which God invested the stars to administer the changing conditions in the manner which he has or- dained for men. This influence takes place at the hour of birth, when the different types of Fate, whether those of happiness or unhappiness, health or sickness, be- come consummate, according to the relationship be- tween the stars and the elements. 2 Besides, we have from the pen of Jacob of Edessa his treatise De Causa Ominum Causarum or The First Cause, The Creating, and the Almighty, which is God, the Protector of AIL According to George, bishop of the Arabs, this treatise was the introduction to Jacob’s exposition of the Six Days which has been lost to us. By Moses bar Kifa we have a doctrinal, theological, and philosophical treatise on free will and predestination. Another work entitled Causa Causarum is by an anonymous Syrian bishop from Edessa, mostlikely a tenth century scholar who had knowledge of Arab mystic philosophy. In this work the author discussed the knowledge of God by rational and natural proofs with the exclusion of tradi- tional proofs. He alluded vaguely to the doctrine of Trinity and talked about the heavenly as well as the earthly world, i.e. men, animals, and minerals. The book is an encyclopedia containing the knowledge of science of the Middle Ages. Finally, Bar Hebraeus incor- porated into his two theological works The Lamp of the Sanctuaries and The Book of Rays treatises on philosophy and fate. SECTION TWO The Influence of Aristotelian Philosophy on The Syrians The Syrians were the first of the oriental nations to study philosophical sciences by translating and com- menting on the works of .Aristotle. They preceded and even taughtthe Arabs who tackled these sciences through Syriac translations. These sciences were transmitted into Europe in the Middle Ages via Spain and were studied by Western scholars. As early as the middle of the fifth century, the Syrians began to teach the peripatetic philosophy at the School of Edessa. Also, they translated the Isagoge of Porphyry, commented on it and translated it for the second and third time. By the time the star of the priest Sergius of Ras Ayn and the monks of the monastery of Qinnesrin began to rise, the Syrian scholars had adhered to the philosophical writings of John Philoponus, 1 as well as the peripatetic and the Neo-Platonic philosophy which belongs to Plotinus. In the second half of the seventh century, however, Greek studies declined and the ef- forts of the Syrian translators began to show in the ninth and tenth centuries. They were followed by the period of selection and compilation. Among the scholars of the first era we mention Ibas and his two disciples, Kumi and Probus, who translated the works of Aristotle. Ibas, metropolitan of Edessa (435-457) is thought to be the first to translate the Isagoge. Then he went on to translate some of the Nestorian writings of Theodore of Mopsuestia. Kumi succeeded him at the end of the fifth century and a book of his translation was found in the MS. 88 of the Seert library which was pillaged during the last war. As to Probus, the chief physician and the archdeacon of Antioch, he worked on the translation of th e Isagoge, the science of the allegorical interpretation of the Holy Scripture and the Analytica Priora by Aristotle. 2 62 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences The most famous philosopher of the second era is Sergius of Ras Ayn the Syrian (d. 532) . From his pen we have the treatise on logic in five books addressed to Theodore, bishop of Maru (Merv), a tract on Negation and Affirmation, another on the Causes of the Universe according to the views of Aristotle, a tract on Genus, Species and Individuality, the Categories of Aristotle . Ofhis translations, we have the Isagoge of Porphyry, the Catego- ries of Aristotle, the Being of the World, a treatise on the Soul, and portions of Galen’s writings. Sergius did an excellent job of presenting the original meaning in so clear a language that these translations are preferable to their Latin counterparts. In the seventh century our Monastery of Qinnesrin attained wide fame by becoming a stopping place for students of Greek philosophy. In 604 A.D.. its chief professor and bishop, Severus Sabukht, began the teach- ing of philosophy, mathematics, and theology. He also devoted time to inviting commentaries on the remain- ing philosophical works. We have a treatise on the syllogism in the AnalyticaPriora of Aristotle and tracts on the allegorical interpretation of the Holy Scripture, a letter addressed to the priest I th Alaha (God Exists) on the exposition of certain terms and a letter to the Periodeutes Yunan (Jonah) on the interpretation of some points in the logic of Aristotle. Also in this monas- tery flourished a monk to whom is ascribed an exposi- tion of some old commentaries on the Isagoge. It was published by Baumstark. The disciple of Severus Sabukht, Jacob of Edessa, composed a significant work, the Enchiridion, a tract on philosophical terms. Also, two poems on philosophical subjects were ascribed to him. Besides, we have the translation to the Syriac of the Isagoge of Porphyry by Athanasius II of Balad, patriarch of Antioch in 645 and another Isagoge by an anonymous Greek writer. George, bishop of the Arabs, translated the Organon of Aristotle and wrote an introduction to each book with commen- taries too. Because of its importance and the exactitude of its style, this work was greatly admired by the French philosopher, Ernest Renan, who preferred it to all the Syriac philosophical works which he read.* Among the scholars who worked with philosophy during and after this era was Ahudeme, catholicos ofTakrit (d. 575) . He composed a book of Definitions on all parts of logic, a treatise on Fate and Predestination, on the Soul and on Man as the Microcosm and a treatise on the Composition of Man as Consisting of a Soul and Body. Other philosophical writerswere Habib Abu Raita ofTakrit (d. 829) , Nonnus of Nisibin the Archdeacon (d. 845), Moses bar Kifa, metropolitan of Beth Remman (d. 903), who, accord- ing to Bar Hebraeus, wrote a commentary of the Dialec- tics of Aristotle, and the two monks, Raphael 4 and Banyamin. 5 From the tenth to the middle of the eleventh century Syrian philosophical scholars whether from Baghdad or T akrit, excelien tly tran slated philosophical an d medi- cal works. These scholars were Abu Zachariah Denha the Syrian dialectician (d. 925), Yahyaibn Adi (d.974), Abu Ali Isa ibn Zura (d. 1008), Abu al-Khayr al-Hasan ibn Siwar al-Khammar and Isaac ibn Zura (d. 1056). 6 They were well-versed in both Syriac and Arabic and some had mastered Greek. Their works and translation, however, did not fall within the scope of this work. 7 Of the scholars who concerned themselves with phi- losophy in the fourth and last era are Dionysius bar Salibi, metropolitan of Amid, who wrote a commentary in 1 148 on the Isagoge of Porphyry, commentaries on the Categories, the Allegorical Interpretation of the Holy Scriptures and the Analyticot Aristotle. Other scholars were Gabriel of Edessa (d. 1227), who wrote many medical and philosophical works, Jacob bar Shakko (more correctly Shabbo, ed.) ofBartulli (d. 1241), who wrote a compen- dium work on logic and the definition of philosophy and also natural mathematical and theological litera- ture for establishing them in the Christian schools. The person who concluded the Aristotelian philosophical works among the Syrians was Bar Hebraeus who studied them as adopted from the Greek and added to them what he fancied from the writings of Arab philosophers, Ibn Sina in particular. He wrote a valuable large ency- clopedia entitled Hewalh Hehhemtho (Butyrum Sapientiarum) in three volumes comprising the whole Aristotelian discipline which he abridged in his work Teghrath Teghrotho, (Mercatura Mercatusarum). Also, he wrote two small works entitled The Speech of Wisdom and The Pupils of the Eyes x two treatises on the rational soul and philosophical poetry. In these works he at- tained to the utmost height and eminent end. He was also determined to write a larger work on philosophy in which he would explain its obscurities and reveal its secrets relying on his deduction and personal opinion, but his death prevented the realization ofhis dream. Beside his philosophical writings Bar Hebraeus trans- lated from Arabic into Syriac Ibn Sina’s al-Isharat wal- Tanbihat (The Book of Indications and Prognostica- tions) and Zubdat al-Asrar (The Cream of Secrets) by Athir al-Din al-Abhari. An account ofhis works shall be given later. SECTION THREE Other Syriac Translations From Greek Syrian scholars translated other philosophical and literary works by Greek philosophers of whose writings we found a group of treatises like the collection of ethical and moral maxims by Pythagoras, 1 the Platonic definitions of faith, God, Love and righteousness, 2 as well as Plato’s advice to his disciple; the counsel of Theano, the female philosopher;* the “Counsel of phi- losophers on the Soul;” the “Counsel of philosophers;” the “Life of Secundus” the philosopher; 4 discourses on 63 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences the soul as well as philosophical maxims thought by some scholars to be the composition of Gregory Thaumaturgus; 5 the “Maxims ofMenander;” 6 the “Max- ims of Xystus;” 7 a dialogue on the soul between Socrates and Erostrophus; 8 a tract on the soul; 9 Isocrates’ dis- course address to Demonicus; 10 a treatise ascribed to Plutarch as well as his treatise on “de cohibenda ira;” 11 the treatise of Lucian on the “Dispraise of Calumny;” 12 and the treatise by Thamistius, unknown in Greek. 15 Some of these treatises have been abridged in order to show their purpose. Besides, a manuscript at the Dublin Library contains maxims of many Greek phi- losophers with a short collection on The Desire for Pa- tience . 14 Baumstark believes that the two treatises of Plutarch are the translation of Sergius of Ras Ayn. Also we have in Syriac the sayings of Aesop (Luqman the Sage). By Theodosius Romanus, patriarch of Antioch (d. 896) we have a treatise comprising one hundred and twelve Pythagorean maxims to which he added a few commentaries in Syriac and Arabic. 15 We have also found in a manuscript in Mount Sinai, a treatise by Plutarch, on the spoils which man gains from his en- emies. 16 Moreover, Gottheil published portions of Syriac translations of the writings of Appolonius Theane. CHAPTER TWENTY-EIGHT On The Science of Medicine . The Syrians had special concern for the science of medicine which they became famous for in the Orient and which they practiced more than thousand years. In his Syriac Chronography, 1 Bar Hebraeus mentioned the physicians Sergius of Ras Ayn, Atanos (or Atanas) of Amid, Phylagrius, Simon Taybutha, Gregory and Theodosius, patriarch of Antioch and Hunayn ibn Ishaq who along with Simon Taybutha is Nestorian. 2 From the writings of these physicians we know that Sergius translated into Syriac a group of Galen’s works as had been formerly mentioned. From Sergius we have the translation ofGalen’s ArsMed.icaa.nA DeAlimenlorum Facultatibus. Yet we know nothing of Atanas, Phylagrius, and the bishop Gregory except that the first and the third had a Kunnash (medical collection) mentioned by Ibn Abi Usaybia. It is most likely that Atanas and Phylagrius lived in the seventh century whereas Gregory lived in the eighth. We also have a Kunnashby Theodosius the Patriarch in which he attained to the highest achieve- ment, and anonymous old Syriac translation of Hippocrates’ Aphorism was published by Pognon. We also have a large anonymous medical book consisting of more than 600 pages written in smooth and solid style preserved in the Library at Hims. It is slightly imperfect at the beginning and at the end but it contains a treatise by Hunayn. The notes on this book are written by the deacon Basil, the son of die priest Yuhanna of Melitene, in his own handwriting in 1224. From the pen of the Syrian philosopher Gabriel of Edessa (1227) we have many books on medicine and philosophy. Bar Hebraeus was also a skilled physician who attained to the utmost skill in medicine. He trans- lated into Syriac Dioscorides’ treatise De Medicamentis Simplicibus and four parts of Ibn Sina’s Canon or al- Qanun ji al-Tibb. Of his own composition is a large medical book containing all of the then extant medical theories. In Arabic he wrote a digest of the great book of al-Ghafiqi and a commentary on the Aphorisms of Hippocrates. Further, he composed a treatise on the advantages of the members of the body and wrote a commentary on the Quaesliones Medicae of Hunayn to the chapter on the antidote. The following is a list of the Syrian physicians whom we were able to find: 5 1. Marutha, bishop of Miyapharqin (d. 421) 2. Sergius of Ras Ayn the Archiator (d. 536) 3. Gabriel of Sinjar (d. 610) 4. Emaous the priest 5. Athanos (Atanas) of Amid 6. Phylagrius. 7. Gregory the bishop (8th century) 8. Patriarch Theodosius (d. 896) 9. Ibrahim ibn Bacchus 10. Yahya ibn Adi (d. 974) 11. Ali ibn Bacchus (d. 1004) 12. Isa ibn Zura (d. 1008) 13. Abu al-Khayr al-Hasan ibn al-Khammar 14. Abu Bishr the Syrian 15. Abu al-Faraj al-Yabrudi (d. 1035) 16. Isa ibn Ali ibn Bacchus (d. 1043) 17. Al-Fadl ibn Jarir al-Takriti 18. Abu Nasr Yahya ibn Jarir al-Takriti (d. 1079) 19. The deacon Abu al-Yusr (d. 1100) 20. The priest Abu al-Faraj (d. 1 1 12) 21. The deacon Abu Sad of Edessa (d. 1138) 22. The deacon Abu Ali the chief physician (d. 1169) 23. The deacon Sahdo al-Shumanna (d. 1170) 24. Burhan the skilled physician (d. 1190) 25. Athanasius Denha, metropolitan of Edessa, (d. 1191) 26. Simon of Khartbart (d. 1207) 27. Iyawannis Mina, metropolitan of Amid (d. 1222) 28. Abu al-Hasan al-Qaysari (d. 1222) 29. Abu al-Karam Said ibn Tuma of Baghdad (d. 1223) 30. The archdeacon Abu Sad, Chief of the Eastern physicians (d. 1224) 31. Hasnun of Edessa (d. 1227) 32. Gabriel of Edessa 64 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences 33. Abu Salim ibn Karaba of Melitene (d. 1234) 34. Mari A1 Tuma of Baghdad (d. 1236) 35. The sage Theodore of Antioch (d. 1240) 36. Isa ofEdessa, the disciple of Hasnun (d. 1244) 37. Abu al-Khayr Sahl ibn Said A1 Tuma (d. 1245) 38. The priest Yeshu A1 Tuma ofHisn Kifa (d. 1248) 39. The deacon Aaron ibn Tuma of Melitene (d. 1252) father of Abu al-Faraj Bar Hebraeus. 40. Michael ibn Barjas of Melitene (d. 1255) 41. Abu al-Izz ibn Daqiq. of Mosul (d. 1258) 42. The Maphrian Saliba ofEdessa (d. 1258) 43. Taj al-Dawla Abu Tahir A1 Tuma (d. 1277) 44. Qufer ibn Harun of Melitene 45. Abu al-Khayr ofEdessa (d. 1284) 46. Abu al-Faraj of Melitene Bar Hebraeus (d. 1286) 47. The priest Simon A1 Tuma (d. 1289) 48. The deacon Yuhanna ibn Saru of Bartulli (d. 1292) 49. The deacon Bahnam Habbo Kanni of Bartulli (d. 1293) 50. Ishaq ibn Abi al-Faraj ibn al-Qissis ( the priest) (d . 1299) 51. The priest Jamal al-Din of Arbil (d. 1369) 52. The Maphrian Aziz of Seert (d. 1487) 53. The deacon Yuhanna of Damascus (d. 1580) 54. Patriarch Nimat Allah Nur al-Din (d. 1587) 55. Bishop Tuma Nur al-Din (d. 1592) 56. The prince Qura the archiator and contempo- rary of Jacob of Saruj. 4 Of these physicians the ones who wrote medical books in Arabic are: Ibrahim ibn Bacchus, Yahya ibn Adi, Ali ibn Bacchus, Isa ibn Zura, Abu al-Faraj al- Yabrudi, the two brothers al-Fadl ibn Jarir and Yahya ibn Jarir. CHAPTER TWENTY-NINE On Natural Science Few are the Syriac compositions in natural science which have reached us but of these a few texts on Zoology (known as Physiology) were published by Tychsen in thirty-two short sections in Rostock in 1 795. Further, in the fourth volume of his Anecdota Syriaca, Land edited a more detailed work consisting of ninety- one chapters with acommentary on each chapter drawn from the Holy Bible and Christian doctrines. The writer frequen tly cites the Book ofSixDaysby Basilius of Caesarea. To these, Land also added his own comments. We have also a third collection consisting of one hundred and twenty-five chapters which discuss animals, trees and stones with some geographical observations which show that its Nestorian author used Arabic sources. From this collection al-Hasan bar Bahlul used some excerpts on natural science in his Lexicon. From the letter of Alexander to Aristotle ascribed to Celestine, the Syrians knew the stories of legendary animals. Further, Bar Salibi composed a treatise on the composition of the human body, two portions of which remain in the Oxford Library. On the same subject, the MS 116 at Berlin contains a heptasyllabic poem, imper- fect at the beginning, edited by Gottheil in the Hebrew collection. An old and obscure manuscriptat the British Museum, 1 imperfect at the beginning and the end, transcribed in the eighth or ninth century, contains the science of cultivation (Geoponika). It was published by de Lagarde. Perhaps it is the translation of Sergius of Ras Ayn who wrote a book on agriculture which had been erroneously ascribed to Qusta ibn Luqa of Baalbak the Malkite. The book is in Arabic. The original author of the book, however, is Anatolius Vindanius of Beirut. It has been four times published in Greek. In chapter 163 Photius of Constantinople mentioned that the book contains twelve parts, but the Syriac translator added another two chapters drawn from many sources particularly the book entitled Veterinary Medicine by Anatolius. CHAPTER THIRTY The Science of Astronomy (Al-Haya, The Form, i.e., of The Heavens); Geography, Mathematics and Chemistry Bar Daysan was the first to write on astronomy, buthis work was lost. It is perhaps the same work to which George, bishop of the Arabs, alluded in his treatise on Aphrahat’s discourses. By Sergius of Ras Ayn we have a treatise addressed to Theodore showing the action or influence of the moon to which he appended another treatise on the motion of the sun. This tract was pub- lished by Sachau. 1 From the astronomical compositions of Severus Sabukht we have Signs of the Zodiacs of which remained the extracts on the habitable and inhabitable portions of the earth, the measurement of the heaven and the earth and the space between them, the astro- labe and a treatise on the 14th of Nisan (April), Greek 976 (665 A.D.). 2 Further we have other geographical works such as the interesting discourse of Jacob of 65 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences Edessa on the Six Days of creation in which he used the work of Ptolemy as his source, the discourse of David bar Paul on the Definitions of Regions and the Alternations of Days and Nights, and a large work on the six days of creation by Moses bar Kifa. Moreover, the author of Causa Causarum incorporated in part II of this book which consists of four chapters diverse scientific infor- mation including original as well as quoted definitions as they were known in the land of the East in the tenth century. These chapters also contain pictures illustrat- ing the text The Book of Treasures by Jacob of Bartulli contains chapters on the Formi.e., of the Heavens on geography. The same author also incorporated in part four of the secondvolume ofhiswork TTieZha/ogiieshortdiscourses on astronomy, arithmetic, surveying and music. He drew his sources from Nicomachus, an anonymous Pythagorean as well as Arab sciences. His purpose was to elevate the reader through the knowledge of math- ematics to the highest peak of philosophical thinking, namely theology. The two works of Bar Hebraeus, The Lamp of the Sanctuaries and the Book of Rays contained geographical subjects, while his noble work entitled Ascent of the Mind contained a treatise on astronomy and cosmography. He also taught mathematics in Maragha in 1268 and wrote a commentary on the Megiste by Euclid. 3 Further, the second volume of P.E.M . Ber (helot’s Chemistry in the Middle AgeA contained short tracts or Syriac canons by a goldsmith discussing the mixing of minerals, their coloring and the transformation of sub- stances. These tracts are originally Greek but the Syrian hand changed them according to the method of experi- ment 5 As for the ancient pseudo-alchemy, the Syrians were motivated by the Christian teaching and practice to reject it as they also rejected the absurdities of astrology. CHAPTER THIRTY-ONE The Translation of Foreign Works Motivated by their desire and yearning for knowl- edge, the Syrians spent great efforts in translating Greek works into Syriac. 1 In this they also demonstrated their exceptional faculties and intelligence. The translation movement began early in the Chris- tian era. After the Holy Bible was translated from the Hebrew and Greek, the epistles of this period as well as the canons and ordinances based on the Bible were also translated. This was followed by the activities of the School of Edessa which began the translation of the theological, historical and jurisprudence masterpieces of religious leaders and speculative thinkers. By the middle of the century they proceeded to translate the books of philosophy as well as those of diverse sciences and left no Greek science or art without having first rendered it into their tongue. The School of Edessa did not stand alone in this regard, but it is most likely that a group of top scholars in the country of al-Sham and its many convents participated in this great effort into which only a few capable learned men and writers could venture. 2 For the knowledge of Greek - then the lan- guage of learning and politics - so spread among our Western Syrian schools and institutions that there was hardly a monastery and a big or moderate school whose teachers did not learn it or teach it And when they mastered both languages and excelled the Easterners (Nestorians) in eloquent style, significant writings and serious scientific subjects - despite what has been lost of their legacy through time - out of their pens came interesting writings and composition. The origins of some of these writings were lost but they survived in the Syriac translation. Indeed, the Syrian scholars have contributed to sci- ence as they did to those who seek for its treasures. They also became the torches of their Syrian nation which benefited from the knowledge of outstanding learned Christians as well as ancient philosophers. The impact of this knowledge on the Syrian nation was manifested in the successful activities of Syrian scholars in the arena of learning for a thousand years. This is what the Christian Greek nation - who enjoyed the fruits of its rich language and avoided learning the Aramaic tongue or benefited from the product of our scholars and historians - did not do. Thus, its libraries harbored no (Syriac) writings except those of Bardaysan and few by St. Ephraim. Its histories too were more or less void of happenings in the Near and Middle East. The impact of this deficiency remained conspicuous in both profane and ecclesiastical history until the beginning of the twentieth century when contemporary western scholars and their predecessors began to fill the gap through the study of our language and by publish- ing the works of our scholars. Had the Greeks done the same, the translations of some of the books which were lost would have been preserved as have been those Armenian translations. 3 The translation movement reached with us the high- est peak as a result of the distinguished work of the translators in the golden era, i.e., from the fourth to the eighth centuries. They all shared the same faculty mak- ing eloquent and lucid style combined with excellent meaning. Though at the beginning they placed empha- sis on literary translation, starting from the middle of the seventh century they placed more emphasis on 66 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences meaning. They also learned scientific discipline, thanks to the innovations of Athanasius II, of Balad and Jacob of Edessa. However, what distresses us and the history of literature is that history did not reward the competent translators by perpetuating their memory. Perhaps out of modesty these translators chose not to disclose their names. No doubt, most of them were servants of reli- gion as bishops, monks and priests who renounced the pleasures of the world and denied themselves every- thing except that which drew them nearer to God and benefitted their neighbor. Translators are either known or unknown. Those who are unknown were: 1 . The translators of the Holy Bible. 2. The translators of the epistles of Clemis (Clem- ent), Ignatius and the Didascalia and others in the second and third centuries. 3. The translators of the minor ecumenical councils and others in the fourth and fifth centuries. 4. The translators of the works of the Doctors of the Church from the early period of the second century until the first quarter of the fourth century. 5. The translators of the works ofEusebius ofCaesarea, Athanasiun the Apostolic, Titus of Busra, at the end of the fifth century; Gregory of Nyssa, the Cypriot, John Chrysostom and others in the fifth and sixth centuries. The works of Gregory Nazianzen were perhaps trans- lated in this period too. 6. The translators of the canons of emperors in the fifth century. 7. The translators of the epistles of the Fathers in the sixth century. 8. The translators of ascetic books and the biogra- phies of saints and their stories. 9. The translators of church hymns called the Can- ons in the eighth century. The known translators were: 1. Marutha, metropolitan of Miyafarqin (d. 421). 2. Rabula, metropolitan of Edessa (d. 435). 3. Archdeacon Probus of Antioch (end of the fifth century) . 4 4. The Chorepiscopus Polycarp of Mabug (d. 508). 5. John the Blessed (beginning of the sixth century) . 6. Simon abbot of the Monastery of Liqin. 7. Paul, metropolitan ofal-Raqqa (Callinicus) (d. 528) . 8. The priest Sergius of Ras Ayn (d. 536). 9. Stephen, assistant to Sergius of Ras Ayn. 10. Rabban Moses of Agel (d. 550) 11. Sergius bar Qasir, bishop of Harran (d. 580) 12. Thomas of Amid (d. 598) . 13. Paul, metropolitan of Talla. 14. Thomas the deacon. 15. Paul, metropolitan of Edessa (d. 619) 16. Paul the abbot (d. 624). 17. Thomas of Harqal, metropolitan of Mabug (d. 627). 18. Janurin of Amid (d. 665). 19. Patriarch Athanasius II (d. 686). 20. Jacob of Edessa (d. 708). 21. Phocas bar Sergius. 22. Theodosius, metropolitan of Edessa (d. 830). 23. Arbi, metropolitan of Samosata (d. 850). 24. Ignatius III, metropolitan ofMelitene (d. 1094). The translators from Persian to Syriac were: 1. Severus Sabukht, bishop of Qinnesrin (d. 665). 2. John of Tiflis who translated the Gospel from Syriac into Persian. He has been mentioned formerly among the translators of medical and philosophical works from Syriac into Arabic. 3. Gregory bar Hebraeus, maphrian of the East translated four philosophical and medical books from Arabic into Syriac. 4. Yeshu the priest, translated the CArcmzcfeofMichael the Great into Armenian. SECTION ONE The Translated Works Until 400A.D. Following is a list of the works of church doctors translated from Greek: 1. The two epistles of Clemis (Clement) of Rome to the Corinthians, his other two pseudo-epistles on virgin- ity and eight books comprising the Canons ascribed to him. 1 2. The seven epistles of Ignatius the Illuminator said to be an abridgement of the originals, three of which addressed to Polycarp, Ephesus and Rome were pub- lished by Cureton . 2 At Basibrina we found the epistles to Magnesia, Tralles, Philadelphia and Asia (Izmir) with the abridgement of Polycarp’s epistle to Philippi. The Greek version of chapter twelve which is most impor- tant, is lost 3. The apologies of Aristides the Athenian philoso- pher and Ambrose the Greek convert to Christianity in the second century. 5 4. Eleven explanatory extracts of the Holy Bible by Hippolytus of Rome and his homily on the passover (Easter) addressed to the Empress Mamaea and on extract from his reply to Gaius the priest. 4 5. Several extracts, some of which are authentic and some merely ascribed to Eustinus, Melito, bishop of Sardis, Irenaeus, Clemis (Clement) of Alexandria and Cyprian, 5 together with four homilies on Faith, the Incarnation, the Annunciation of the Virgin and the Epiphany by Gregory Thaumaturgus; 6 extracts from the six letters of Dionysius of Alexandria to Nopatus, Dionysius, Stephen, the two Popes Stephen I and Xystus II, Paul of Samosata and a refutation of his heresy; 7 extracts from the treatise of Methodius, the martyr, bishop of Lucia on the Resurrection in refutation of Origen. The original Greek of this treatise except for a 67 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences small portion has been lost 8 Also, other extracts and a treatise on the end of times in 25 pages, probably spurious; 9 extracts from the homilies of Peter of Alexan- dria on the Divinity, Resurrection and that souls did not precede the bodies in existence; on the admonition of those who renounce faith under persecution; 10 several homilies by Alexander of Alexandria 11 and extracts by Saraphion, bishop of Thumuis. 12 6. A book by Eustathius of Antioch comprising seven treatises in refutation of Arianism mentioned by the Catholicos Timothy I in his last letter to the priest doctor Sergius. Perhaps Martin published extracts or only portions of it 15 It also contains a homily on the Annunciation (of the Virgin). 7. The Ecclesiastical History, the History of Martyrs in Palestine and the Divine Manifestation of our Lord by Eusebius of Caesarea, the Chronicle of Eusebius trans- lated by Jacob of Edessa and the Defense of the Gospels, parts of which were incorporated by Severus the monk in his collection No. 853. 14 8. Four homilies on Lent, Stephen, Faith and the New Forms and the treatise against the Jews by the Syrian Eusebius of Edessa, bishop of Hims who died shortly after the year 359. 15 9. A book on refutation of Arianism by Athanasius of Alexandria ofwhich we have avaluable and unique copy which is slightly imperfect and written in fine Estrangelo script on vellum. It contains three treatises in 167 pages most likely transcribed in the eighth century. 16 Also by Athanasius are fifteen festal letters on Easter written from 329 to 348 and slightly wanting. They are pre- served in an old manuscript transcribed in the eighth century; 17 a discourse on the incarnation of the word transcribed in 564; 16 a treatise against Appolinarius; 19 discourses on the Trinity, Epiphany, Orthodox faith, the Crucifixion and Good Friday; 20 two letters to Apyctius, bishop of Corinth and another letter to Adelphius on the Incarnation; 21 a treatise on the Virginity said to be unauthentic and an apology for his escape. 25 10. The four discourses on Titus, bishop of Busra (d. 375) against the Manicheans of which the first, the second and part of the third treatises 24 survive in Greek; an explanatory discourse of some passage of the Gospel; the fourteenth discourse of Christian teaching by Cyril, bishop of Jerusalem (d. 386). 25 1 1. The works of Basilius of Caesarea which are: the homilies of the Six Days of Creation, discourses on the Week of Passion in 236 pages transcribed by Athanasius the priest in 666, 26 a book of Ethics of 178 pages containing spiritual and theological discourses in which he discusses Baptism, the Eucharist and lives of some martyrs; 27 three treatises against Eunomius, two ofwhich are written on vellum in the Estrangelo script, the first is imperfect; 28 two letters to his brother Gregory and the people of Suzopolis with many counsels; 29 fourteen discourses on the Nativity of our Lord, on Lent, on learning by experience based on the saying of the right man of the Bible “I shall pull down my barns,” on the forty martyrs, on Faith, against the Drunkards; an ex- planatory homily of a chapter from the Bible usually recited in the eve of the first Friday of Lent; on the Six Days of Passion, on the Resurrection; 50 on the Holy Spirit; 51 letters of Basilius and on Monastical regula- tions. 55 12. The homilies of Gregory the Theologian, his two- syllabic poems and his letters 55 translated (into Syriac) by the abbot Paul in 624 as well as Vinerius of Amid and Athanasius II, the translation of the first one (abbot Paul) was revised byjacob of Edessa or perhaps by Arbi, metropolitan of Samosata, who evidently chose selec- tions of these homilies for translation. Further, a copy of his poems numbering 1 30 were translated in the fifth or the sixth century. However, these poems which were published in two volumes in Beirut in 1889 donotagree with the original arrangement due to confusion and abridgement. The homilies of Gregory which have reached us are seven: 1) On the Nativity of our Lord, 2-3) On the Epiphany, 4) On the Passover Easter, 5) On Sunday and the Spring, 6) On Mamas the martyr youth, 7) On the Pentecost, 56 and an epistle to Cledonius. 57 13. The writings of Gregory of Nyssa: Comprising a thirteen-chapter homily against Eunomius, 58 sixteen discourses on the commentary on the Song of Songs, five discourses on the Lord’s Prayer, eight discourses on the Beatitudes, 59 two discourses on the Holy Trinity, 40 a discourse on the Fortune of Man, 41 a discourse on the Hexameron, 42 a thirty-six chapter discourse on the perfection of the creation of man, in which he com- pleted his brother’s treatise on the Six Days of Creation, a large tract on the Oratio Catechetica Magna,* 3 a dialogue with his sister Macrina on the Soul and Resurrection, 44 a letter to Theophilius of Alexandria against Apollinarius; 45 a discourse on Virginity of which frag- ments survive and six homilies containing: 1) a commentary on the Liturgy; 47 2) on the Incarnation of our Lord; 3) on Stephen; 4) on the Passion; 5) on the Resurrection (Easter), 6) on eulogizing Meletius, bishop of Antioch 48 and other homilies with several counsels. Also ascribed to him are the answers to the questions of his brother Basil on the knowledge of the Tora (Pentateuch) , doctrines, anecdotes, liturgies and eccle- siastical ethics which according to Baumstark were originally Syriac and written in the ninth century. 49 14. Chapters by Didymus of Alexandria (d. 398) against Arianism, a treatise on preaching by Glasius, metropolitan of Caesarea of Palestine (d. 398) and a discourse on Faith by Ambrose (d. 397). 50 15. A short treatise on the weights and measures 68 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences mentioned in the Bible by Epiphanius of Cyprus 51 and published in 1936. His treatise, The Container of Medicine, against Heresies, contained in a wanting manuscript at the end in the Library at Hims was transcribed around 1 200 A.D., and a homily on the Presen tation of our Lord in the Temple, 52 a discourse on heretics and a commen- tary on the Gospels by Amphilochus, bishop of Iconium (d. 400). 55 16. A commentary on the book of Ecclesiastes by John the solitary ascetic addressed to Theogenus the ascetic of which a vellum copy written in the Estrangelo script is preserved in the Mount Sinai, MS. 16. SECTION TWO The Translation Until The Year 451 1 7. The writings ofjohn Chrysostom are made up of a discourse on the Priesthood, 1 two discourses on Re- pentance and Counsel to Theodore, 2 twelve homilies against the heretics, 5 eight discourses against the Jews, 4 a discourse on the Divinity of Christ against the Hea- thens, 5 two discourses on Baptism and three homilies “ad Stagirum a daemone Vexatum,” 8 a consolatory epistle to those exiled from home, 7 several homilies containing commentaries on the Gospels of St. Mat- thew 8 and SL John 9 and the Pauline epistles; 10 of these homilies as well as his festal homilies we know one hundred, and one homily sixty-five of which are pre- served at our library. One homily only was published by Francois Nau, while thirty-five others were mentioned by some old manuscripts in the series of homilies for the whole year. These hundred homilies are as follows: 11 1) on the Consecration of the Church; 2) the Annunciation of Zachariah; 3) on the Nativity of our Lord; 4) on the Incarnation of Christ an d on the Mother of God; 5) on the Annunciation of the Virgin Mary; 6) on the Manifestation of our Lord from the com- mentary on the Gospel of St. Matthew; 7) on the Baptism of our Lord by John; 8) on the Beginning Lent; 9-10) on Lent; 11) on Fasting and Repentance; 12) on the Leper from the commentary on the Gospel of St Matthew; 13) on the contest of our Lord with Satan; 14) on Fasting; 15) Extract from the twenty-fifth homily on the Epistle to the Romans about the punishments which took place throughout the ages and against those who deny Hell; 16) Extractfrom the fifth homily on theEpisde to the Romans concerning that we should fear Hell and on our lack of Love; 17) Extracts from the second homily on the contest of our Lord with Satan; 18) Extracts from the thirty-seventh homily on the Gospel of St John; 19) on Zacchaeus the Publican; 20-22) on the Prodigal Son; 23) on the two Blind men from the commentary on the Gospel of St. Matthew; 24) the third contest of Our Lord with Satan; 25) on Matthew the Publican; 26) Extracts from the third homily on Humility from the commentary on the Gospel of St. Matthew; 27) on Mid-Lent; 28) on the ten Virgins; 29) on the Rich man whose ground brought forth plentifully; 30) on Lazarus and the Rich man; 31) Extract from the sixty-ninth homily from the commentary on the parable “The Kingdom of God is likened unto a King who made a feast for his Son” from the Gospel of St. Matthew; 32) on the Mercy of God which our evils cannot overcome; 33) on the verse from the Psalms “Surely men are likened unto vapor,” according to the Syriac version (Ps. 39:6) and “Surely they are disquieted in vain” according to the Greek version; 34) on Mercy; 35) on Psalm 100; 36) on the words of David “who is the man who seeketh life” and on those who blaspheme; 37) Extract from the tenth homily on the second Epistle to the Corinthians on the Fearful (Second) coming of Christ; 38) Extract from a homily showing that the obser- vance of Lent is not sufficient to qualify us for partaking of the Holy Eucharist on the great day of the Resurrec- tion of our Lord separate from the virtue of the soul, also on Malice and Faith; 39) Extracts from three homilies on Lazarus of Bethany compiled from the commentary on the Gos- pel; 40) on Palm Sunday; 41) on Palm Sunday Festival; 42) for Monday in Passion Week and on the Arrival in the Harbor which he delivered at the church of Asia while in exile; 43) the sixty-eighth homily on the verse from the Gospel of St.John “the people answered him, we have heard out of the law that Christ abideth forever: and how sayest you, the Son of Man must be lifted up? Who is this Son of Man” 12 and on our duty to take care of the lives of our brethren; 44) the seventy-sixth homily on the Gospel of St.John “rise, let us go hence” 15 and “I am the true vine and my Father is the Husbandman,” 14 and on Iniquity; 45) on the saying of the Lord “If it is possible, let this 69 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences cup pass from me,” and on heretics; 46) same as the previous one; 47) on the Passion of Our Savior; 48) on the Treachery of Judas, on the Holy Sacra- ments and on that we should not bear grudges; 49) extracts from the eighty-third homily on the Gospel of St. Matthew “Then comethjesus with them to a place called Gethsemane...;” 16 50) extracts from the homily eighty-four on the Gospel of St. Matthew “And, behold, one of them which were with Jesus stretched out his hand, and drew his sword;” 17 51) the evening of the Friday of the Crucifixion; 52) extracts from the homily eighty-six on the Gospel of St. Matthew “And Jesus stood before the Governor: and the Governor asked him, saying: Art Thou the King of the Jews?”; 18 53) extracts from the eighty-seventh homily on the verse from the Gospels “Then the officers ledjesus unto the hall of judgment;” 19 54) on the Salvation we are given by the Cross; 55) on the Passion of our Lord; 56) for the Saturday of Annunciation, on Baptism, the Thief and on that we should neither be glutton nor drunk; 57) on the Graveyard 20 and the Cross; 58) the eighty-fifth homily on the Gospel of St. John concerning the Evening of the Passover and on the verse “And after this Joseph of Aramathea;” 21 59) on the Resurrection and on Let us escape from fornication and iniquity; 60) on the Resurrection of our Lord; 61) on His Ascension to Heaven; 62) on the Virgin; 63) a homily on the epilogue of the Epistle to the Romans in praise of Sts. Peter and Paul; 64) on the commemoration of martyrs and confes- sors; 65) on the dead; 66) on that we should not weep over the dead as other people do; 67) on the Humanity of our Lord which begins thus: Beloved, the souls which love God daily enjoy the heavenly festivities; 68) a homily to be recited in the evening of the first Wednesday of the Lent; 69) another one for the second Sunday of the Lent; 70) a homily for the fourth Sunday on the Canaanite Woman; 71) for the evening of the fifth Sunday; 72) for the evening of the first Friday of the Lent; 73) for Good Friday; 74) on the Cross and the Thief; 75) on the end of the Lent and the Saturday of Annunciation; 76) on the Nativity of our Lord; 77) on the Massacre of the Innocent; 78-79) on Baptism; 80-81) on the decollation of John the Baptist; 82) on the Lent; 83) for the second Saturday of the Lent; 84) for the third Sunday of the Lent; 85) for the sixth Sunday of the Lent; 86) on wealth and poverty; 87) Extract from the homily on the Epistle to the Romans; 88-89) on the Canaanite Woman; 90) on the Sinner Woman; 91) on Friday of the Crucifixion; 92-93) on the Saturday of Annunciation; 94) for the evening of the Passover; 95) for the evening of the Monday after the Resurrec- tion; 96) for Low Sunday; 97) on the Pentecost; 98) on the Apostles; 99) on Babula the patriarch; 100) on the Maccabees; 101) on Romanus the martyr. 18. The commentary on the Gospels by Theophilus of Alexandria (d. 41 2) and his letter to the monks of St. Bacchumius; the treatise ofjohn, metropolitan ofjerusa- lem (d. 412) on Faith and the letter of Accacius, metro- politan of Melitene (d. 431) refuting the allegations of Andrew of Samosata. 22 19. The writings of Cyril of Alexandria (d. 444) which are: the Book on the worship in Spirit and in Truth compris- ing seventeen treatises of commentaries on the Jewish Laws - written in mystical method. Their form is that of a dialogue between the author and Palladius, bishop of Helenopolis who died around 425. A copy of this work in the Armenian Monastery of St. Jacob in Jerusalem is written in a fine elegant Estrangelo script in the eighth or ninth century, imperfect at both the beginning and the end with some six treatises missing at the middle. Only 394 pages remained of this manuscript. 25 Of Cyril’s writings are also the “de Recta Fide” which he wrote for the Emperor Theodosius the Less, a copy of which he delivered to Rabula, metropolitan of Edessa who trans- lated it into Syriac; 24 a treatise on the Trinity copy of which is at the British Museum; 25 the Book of Glaphyrra (mysteries) consisting of thirteen commentary treatises selected from the commentaries on the Pentateuch translated by Moses of Agel into Syriac around the year 525; 26 two volumes containing a detailed commentary on the Gospel of St. Luke and 156 homilies first pub- lished by Payne Smith in 1858 after many manuscripts in the British Museum, the oldest of which was tran- scribed between the seventh and eighth century. The firstvolume which contains eighty homilies of 330 pages was published byJ.B. Chabot in 1912 who also relied in its publication on two Berlin manuscripts commented upon between the eighth and the ninth century. Of the original Greek of this first volume, which is wanting at 70 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences the beginning, nothing is left except a few portions. However, we have in the two volumes of the homilies of the Doctor Fathers for the whole year, three of which were published, namely the record homily for the Nativity (of our Lord), two homilies for the F-piphany and a homily for the Nativity of John the Baptist. The rest are still not published. These unpublished homilies are: 1) The Nativity of our Lord; 2) the third homily, on the Presentation of Our Lord in the Temple; 3) the eleventh homily, on the Presentation of our Lord in the Temple and Simon the Aged; 4) the eighty-seventh homily, on the Festivals of Martyrs; 5) on the Palsied man; 6) the one-hundred and thirtieth homily, on the Palm Sunday Festival; 7) on the parable of the vine; 8) the homily one-hundred and forty; 9) the homily one hundred and forty-sixth; 10) the homily one hundred and forty-first on Maunday Thursday; 11) the homily one hundred and forty-ninth; 12) the homily one hundred and fifty-first on “And the whole multitude of them arose, and led him unto Pilate;” 27 13) the homily one hundred and fifty-fourth on “And it was about the sixth hour; ”** 14) the homily one hundred and fifty-fifth on the Resurrection of our Lord; 15) on the Holy Mother of God against Nestorius; 29 and twelve letters one of which is addressed to Acacius, bishop of Seythopolis, on the theory of Azazil. 30 20. Canons of the principal as well as the minor councils to the middle of the fifth century. Among these are the canons of the Council of Carthage in the year 251 and twenty-five canons sent by the Italian bishops to the Eastern bishops who assembled in Antioch and other laws enacted by Christian kings for the purchase of lands, slaves, and also for dowries, the division of inheritance among brothers, wills, and other laws en- acted in the fifth century. Appended to these laws is the letter of Constantine the Great to the Council of Tyre which acted meanly by dismissing Athanasius of Alexan- dria, the letter of the two emperors Theodosius the Less and Valantinius to Stephen, metropolitan of Ephesus on the dispensation of church affairs, the letter of Leo, archbishop of Rome to the Emperor Marcian in reply to the latter’s letter delivered by the bishop Lucian and the deacon Basil and the letter of John of Rome to Prosdocius. 31 2 1 . Thirty-seven chapters of the Ecclesiastical History of Socrates, fifteen chapters of the history of Theodoret of Cyrus 32 with a few chapters of his book The History of Monk s 33 and his epistle to the people of Constan tinople 34 and the History of Zachariah, bishop of Mitylene. A homily by Antiochus, bishop of Akka (Ptolemais) (d. 408) beginning with: I praise thee a new praise; 35 a homily against the heretics on the Substance and Na- ture; 36 a discourse on the prayer of Habakkuk 37 by the Syriac speaking Severianus, bishop of Gabala, who died around the second decade of the fifth century; a dis- course by Atticus, archbishop of Constantinople (406- 426) 38 on the Always Virgin Mother of God 39 which is not found in Greek; two discourses by Theodotus, metro- politan ofAncyra (d. 440), on the Nativity of our Lord; 40 Seven discourses by Proclus of Constantinople (d. 446) , three of which are on the Incarnation, the Nativity of our Lord and on Clemis the martyr, bishop of Ancyra, which is not found in Greek; 41 a homily for Low Sunday beginning with “For Sinai is our festival of Salvation” and another homily on the Ascension beginning with “when I was counting in my mind the advantages which our human race has gained from the Cross;” two dis- courses on the Mother of God; on the evening of Good Friday; on Judas the Treacherous; 42 two letters to the Armenians and another one tojohn of Antioch; 43 three discourses by Arichtaus, bishop of Antioch, Pysidia contemporary of Proclus on the Mother of God, 44 the Nativity of our Lord 45 and on Epiphany. 46 23. A commentary on the Psalms by the priest-monk Eusechius of Jerusalem (d. 451). 47 SECTION THREE The Rest of The Translated Writings From The Year 451 and After 24. The treatise of Timothy II of Alexandria (d. 477) against the Council of Chalcedon of which only one hundred and twenty-six pages remain 1 partly published by Nau. 2 It also has a complete Armenian translation. 25. The book ascribed to Dionysius the Areopagite translated by Sergius of Ras Ayn 3 and the book ascribed to Hireotheus, 4 the teacher of Dionysius, translated by someone in answer to the request of a pupil named Philias. 5 26. Two homilies on the Annunciation of Zachariah and the Nativity of our Lord by Antipater, metropolitan of Busra (around 460), 6 a homily on Simon the Aged and the presentation of our Lord in the Temple by the priest Timothy 7 of Antioch (or Jerusalem), both trans- lators were orators living around the year 535, 8 a homily on St. George the martyr by the priest Theodolus (Abd Allah) of whom we know nothing; 9 a homily on the decease of the Virgin by the priest Andrew of Jerusa- lem; 10 a homily by Pantaleon, priest of the Monastery of Byzantium, on the Elevation of the Cross 11 (Pantaleon was an orator who lived in the first half of the seventh century), 12 and a homily on the consecration of the Chrism byjohn Phasaj 13 of whom we know nothing. 27. The writings of Severus of Antioch translated by 71 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences Paul of Callinicus (al-Raqqa) , Paul of Edessa, Athanasius II and Jacob of Edessa. These writings are: Philalethes, treatisesagainstNephalius, Phelisismus, Alexander and John of Caesarea and againstjulian the phantasiast, the homilies for the whole year, the hymns of Severus, a selection from his letters, a commentary on the Gospel of St. Luke and others which shall be mentioned later. 28. An apology against the priest John Aegeates by Theodoretof Cyrus, 14 the treatises ofjohn Rufus in the refutation of the Council of Chalcedon, a commentary on the Revelation by Oecumenius, 15 a refutation of the treatise entitled The Spider’s Web by Rufina the Silver Merchant. 16 29. The book of Theodosius of Alexandria 17 (d. 366) as well as his twenty-five questions, five canons 18 and a letter to the Armenians. 19 30. The Diaetetef 0 or “Arbiter” against the Council of Chalcedon and two theological treatises by John Philoponus 21 published by Sanda in Beirut in 1930. 31. Synodical letter exchanged between the two Patriarchs of Antioch and Alexandria after the MS. of Basibrina. These are: 1) the letter ofjohn II, archbishop of Alexandria (505-516) to Severus, patriarch of Antioch, carried by the bishop of Elarianus, the priest Valise and the dea- con Chartarius on the 8 th of April which is the Monday of the Week of the White [the week after Easter], the year 561 of Antioch (512 A.D.) . This letter is composed of six pages and begins with “Let the significance of committing miracles arise now;” 2) the letter of Severus to John comprising six pages and beginning with “As the equality of the human race, etc.; ” a twelve-page letter of the Council of Antioch held by Dionysius, metropolitan of Tarsus and his brethren the bishops to John II, patriarch of Alexandria begin- ning with “To his Beatitude our Holy Father,” etc.; 3) a three-page reply ofjohn to the Council in 51 1 A.D., beginning with “T o my Lords, the Wise Brethren ; ” 4) A nine-page synodical letter from John III of Alexandria to Athanasius II, patriarch of Antioch on June 4, 686 beginning with “To my Holy and Blessed Father in all his affairs;” 5) a three-page letter ofjoseph of Alexandria tojohn IV, patriarch of Antioch, his priests, deacons and con- gregation entided “To the righteous in all his deeds” and beginning with “John, the Divine Apostle;” 6) a two-page reply ofjohn IV of Antioch tojoseph of Alexandria in the year 846 22 and beginning with “When I hear the Holy Bible commands by saying;” 7) a letter ofjohn bishop of Hepaestus the Copt sent from the island of Cyprus about 540 to the abbots of the Eastern monasteries concerning those who return to the Orthodox Faith. 25 32. Twenty-two letters and one discourse contained in an old and unique vellum manuscript transcribed in the seventh century. 24 They are: 1) a seven-page synodical letter of Theodosius of Alexandria to Severus of Antioch; 2) twenty-four page reply of Severus to Theodosius; 3) the letter of Theodosius to the clergy concerning a certain false belief that had sprung in his days among those of his communion about the oneness of God; 4) a thirty-nine page homily which was delivered at Constantinople; 5) a six-page letter by him on canons; 6) formula of the signatures of the priests of Constantinople to Theodosius; 7) his letter to the Eastern bishops; 8) another similar letter; 9) a letter of the Bishops Jacob, Eugenus and Eunomius to Theodosius; 10) a letter from the Metropolitan Theodorus to Paul II of Antioch; 1 1) a letter from Theodosius to the Eastern bishops; 12) a synodical letter from Paul of Antioch to Theodosius of Alexandria; 13) the reply of Theodosius to Paul; 1 4) a letter from the abbots to Theodosius carried by the Bishops, Jacob, Conon and Eunomius; 1 6-1 7) two letters of authorization from Theodosius to Paul of Antioch; 18) the letter ofTheodosius to die (Coptic) Bishops, John, Leonidas and Joseph; 19) his letter to the Bishop Theodore, the abbots, monks and the faithful in Thebes and Arcadia; 20) his letter to priests, deacons, abbots, monks and the faithful of Alexandria; 21) copy of the Synodikon (Pact or Agreement) made at Alexandria and at Constantinople; 22) a ten-page synodical letter from Theodore, patri- arch of Alexandria to Paul II of Antioch; 23) twenty-six pages reply of Paul to Theodore. 33. A table of the 153 episcopal sees of Antioch made in the middle of the sixth century with some revisions. We found an old copy of this table in Basibrina com- mented upon in the second half of the ninth century which we quoted. 25 A second copy of the same, in the Library at Hims, was completed in 1 602 and is not free from distortion. There are also some differences be- tween the two copies. 26 SECTION FOUR Translations of Greek Writings of Orthodox Origin Not Known to Us We found three Greek Orthodox scholars who wrote in Greek, but we do not know whether their writings were translated into Syriac. These authors were: 1. The priest Timocles of Constantinople who was still living between 450 and 471 . He and Acacius the priest (the Educator of Orphans) composed Octoechus (Hymns) through the chanting of which the Orthodox 72 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences congregation was exhilarated and increased in number (Zachariah the Historian Vol. I, p. 185). Bardy in his Greek Literature, (p. 163) and Batiffol, quoting Theodore the Anagnostes, stated that “Timocles composed Troparias, 1 but his rhymed poems are lost to us.” 2. The priest John Aegeateswho lived in the middle of the fifth or the beginning of the sixth century. He wrote an ecclesiastical history divided into ten books. Photius of Constantinople, who praised his adorned style, stated in extract 41 of his Bibliotheca that he has read the first five parts of his work beginning with the history of the Council of Ephesus and ending with the life of Peter the Fuller in 488. The year in which he ended his history is not known. 2 However, Pargoire 5 mentioned that he was contemporary of Severus I. 3. The priest Basil of Cilicia about whom Photius stated in extract 42 of his Bibliotica the following: “He [Basil] wrote an ecclesiastical history in three volumes, the first covering the history of Marcian, Leo I and part of the reign of Zeno from 450 to 483. The second volume covers the period from the death of the Pope Simplice until the end of the reign of Anstasius in 518. The third discusses the time of Justin I (518-527). Photius, however, was only able to obtain the second volume which was large because it contains many letters of the bishops. Basil also wrote a defense in sixteen parts against John of Baysan. He was, no doubt, contempo- rary to Theodore the Anagnostes, i.e., he was still alive in the first half of the sixth century.” 4 PART TWO Biographies of Syrian Scholars and Writers FOREWORD Table of Concise Biographies of Scholars Divided Into Three Periods The First Period: B. C. to 758 AD. This period begins with the two philosophers, Wafa the Aramaean, in the pre-Christian era and then Bar Daysan, who lived at the end of the second and the beginnirlg of the third centuries A.D. I tends with Iliyya, bishop ofSinjar (d. 758) . The writers of this period were distinguished for their originality, lucidity, and style. They were also famous for the number and value of their work. Indeed, this period is considered the golden era of the Syriac language. These masterful writers crowned the Syriac language with literary gems, attain- ing the acme of philosophy, theology, Biblical commen- taries, polemics and devotional duties, their unsur- passed excellence in jurisprudence, history, poetry, sermons, prose, biographies as well as story writing, reveals their ability and excellent taste. In this period flourished Ephraim the Great, Asuna, Cyrillona, Isaac of Amid, Marutha, Rabula, Balai the bishop, Isaac of Edessa, Simon the potter and Jacob of Saruj. Philoxenus of Mabug astonished his con tempo- raries with his eloquence andPaul ofCallinicus was well- known for his precise translation of religious writings. Other famous writers of their time were Sergius of Ras Ayn, Severus of Antioch, the illustrious theologian, John bar Talla, John bar Aphtonya, Daniel of Salh, the commentator on the Scriptures, and the two historians: Zachariah of Mitylene and John of Ephesus. Peter of Callinicus the theologian. Patriarch Paul ofTalla, Paul of Edessa and Thomas of Herclea, the translator of the Scriptures, and other books were all written during this period. John III of the Sedras, John of Busra and the philosophers Severus Sabukht, Athanasius II, Jacob of Edessa, George bishop of the Arabs, John of Atharb, Phocas bar Sergius and Iliyya bishop of Sinjar and many others such as the monks of the Qarqafta (the Skull) monastery who translated Greek writings, composed religious rituals and vocalized the Holy Scriptures. The Second Period: 773 - 1286 This period opens with Master Lazarus bar Qandasa in the year 773 and ends in the year 1286. It is a period rich in theological writings, particularly commentaries on the Holy Bible, polemics, jurisprudence, canonical laws and historical chronicles. Some of the learned men of this period were concerned with philosophy as well as morphology, grammar and vowelization of the Syriac language. Also, they enriched the church services with the composition of many hymns and supplicatory prayers. In addition, many of the authorities of this language in this period were distinguished for their mastery of the different types of poetry, in which they were thoroughly proficient. Because of their eloquence and rhetoric, the prose of the greatest of these writers was solid, well-formulated, elegant and smooth. How- ever, among the writers of this timewere some who were only mediocre. Of the writers of this period we mention in particular the Abbot David bar Paul for his prose, the Patriarch George I for his commentaries on the Gospels; the Patriarch Cyriacus for his theological writings, homilies and church canons; and Lazarus bar Sob to for his magnificen t poetry. Also worthy of men tion are Nonnus of Nisibin for his polemics, Dionysius of Tall Mahre for his famous history; Theodosius and Benjamin, bishops of Edessa, John of Dara and Moses bar Kifa for their theological and philosophical writings, and Theodosius the Patriarch for his syntagma and his commentaries. We also remember ninth-century patriarchs for their laws and canons, Ezekiel of Melitene for his poetry, Athanasius of Qallisura for his prose, and the anony- mous writer of the book The Cause of all Causes. Yahya ibn Adi, Ali ibn Zura and Abu al-Hasan ibn al-Khammar translated medical and philosophical books into Ara- bic. In addition we find John the disciple of Marun, John bar Shushan the writer and poet, Ignatius III of Melitene, a philosopher historian, and the masters of poetry, such as Bar Qiqi, Bar Sabuni, Timothy of Karkar and Bar Andrew. Jacob bar Salibi, was famous for his theological and polemical writings as well as his exten- sive commentaries on the Holy Bible. Also well known was Bar Wahbun. Michael the Great was famous for his detailed chronicle which has never been successfully imitated; the Edessene historian was known for his precision ; Jacob of Bartulli was a philologist and theolo- gian and Bar Madani was an orator and poet. As to Anton of Takrit, the theologian, poet and master of rhetoric, his eloquence has never been equalled. As to Bar Hebraeus, the Syrian learned man par excellence, he is the master of both periods however one looks at him. 75 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences THE THIRD PERIOD: 1290 - 1931 This period begins with Abu Nasr of Bartulli and ends with the present There was little literary output and this was restricted to a few subjects. The writers of this period, whose writings vary considerably in quality, fall into two categories: The first category consists of writers who approxi- mated the level of the writers of the second period, as far as prose and poetry are concerned. Examples are Abu Nasr of Bartulli, Gabriel of Bartulli (for his prose only) , Barsoum al-Safi, Yeshu bar Kilo, Cyril of Hah, Abu al- Wafa, Joseph bar Gharib, Daniel of Mardin, Isaiah of Basibrina, and Barsoum al-Madani, Bahnam of HidI (for the quality of his prose and poetry) , David of Hims (for his prose and some of his poetry) and Nuh the Lebanese (for the greater part of his poetry also may be placed among the writers of the second period) , Abd al- Ghani al-Mansuri and the Maphrian Simon of Manimim (who was reputed for his prose and poetry) , and Jacob Saka (for his powerful poetry). The writers of the second category are inferior to the first group in literary quality. In this category are Ibn Wuhayb, the monk Yeshu bar Khayrun, his brother Saliba bar Khayrun, the Patriarch Aziz bar Sobto, Malke Saqo, Yeshu of Basibrina and Addai of Basibrina, Masud of Zaz, Nimat Allah Nur al-Din, Jacob of Qutrubul and John al-Bustani. The majority of the writers of this group were over- whelmed by their fondness of using foreign terminol- ogy. They turned away from the beautiful usage of the language to an ugly type preferring a hybrid style to the traditional noble one. However, they preserved the heritage of the Syriac language in a time which treated its people treacherously with arms and men. CHAPTER ONE Biographies of Scholars and Writers of the First Period 1. Wafa the Aramaean Wafa (or Waafa) the Aramaean was an ancient phi- losopher and poet who lived well before the Christian era. 1 He was mentioned only by Anton of Takrit who wrote “The fifth meter of poetry is usually composed of six or seven strophics whose number sometimes in- creases or decreases. This meter belongs to a man named Wafa, an Aramaean philosopher. The composi- tion of poetry by this man, whose name has been unknown for generations, is evidence that this art (po- etry) is old with us.” Anton also cites a line of poetry by Wafa whose meter he allowed himself to change in order to comply with the melody: “I Wafa, of noble origin who dispelled hisworriesand drove away his sorrows; I who rest his heart by driving away grief and distress as well as the outbursts of anger and anxiety; for the men whose anxieties increase, misfortunes become their guests forever.” Anton also says that “this type of poetry is composed in the manner of the amorous songs in which the composers of war lyrics and wedding love songs were accustomed to compose.” 2 This is all that is known about Wafa. 2. Paul bar Arqa of Edessa Paul bar Arqa or Anqa of Edessa was a master of the art of calligraphy. He invented the Syriac script known today as the Estrangelo script as mentioned earlier. 3 He probably lived around the year 200 A.D. In his Lexicon on the term Estrangelo, Bar Bahlul quotes Hannan Yeshu bar Sarushawayh (bishop of al-Hira in the ninth century) who states that “God has given the talent to Paul to perfect this script for the glorification of the Gospel, in order that one’s intellect be delighted and all may endeavor to read the Gospel in this wide legible and beautiful script.” 4 3. Bar Daysan (d. 222) Bar Daysan was born a heathen at Edessa on July 1, 154 A.D. and grew up in the palace of its king, Manu VIII. Together with Manu’s son Abgar he received the highest level share of learning and education. He em- braced Christianity and was ordained a deacon and perhaps also a priest. But, because he was becoming involved in false heathen doctrines from which he had notyetbeen freed, hewas renounced by the Church.He died in 222 A.D. Bar Daysan was an eminent and eloquent writer and philosopher. He wrote many books in Syriac of which nothing has survived except a small treatise entitled The Laws of the Countries, which he dictated to his disciple Philip and in which he discussed fate and predestina- tion. Among his lostwri tings are his treatise on astrology mentioned by George, bishop of the Arabs, and also a hundred and fifty songs written after the manner of the Psalms of David. St. Ephraim, who mentioned these songs, states that Bar Daysan incorporated in them his unorthodox doctrine and teaching and taught them to the youths of Edessa in charming tunes of his own composition. He also established a sect known as the Daysaniyya which included many educated and wealthy people. When St. Ephraim came to live in Edessa in 363 A.D., he endeavored to suppress the songs by compos- ing songs of similar meters and melodies. Furthermore, 76 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences Rabula, bishop of Edessa, (d. 435) was able to convert most of his (Bar Daysan’s) followers to orthodoxy. Only a few of them remained and were scattered in many countries particularly in Persia. A remnant of this sect survived until the tenth century. Bar Daysan was not the father of Syriac poetry and the creator of its meters as some contemporary writers maintain. Syriac poetry existed well before the time of Bar Daysan. Bar Daysan, however, expanded and diver- sified its meters. It is said that he had a son named Harmonius, who surpassed his father in the art of poetry. This theory seems to have been unanimously accepted by the historians of the Middle Ages. In fact, Sozomin and Theodoret went a step further by main- taining that Harmonius was the one who composed the songs for the youths of Edessa, and that he was the one who was opposed by St. Ephraim. However, the surviv- ing poetry of St Ephraim mentions Bar Daysan and not his son. Of these songs of Bar Daysan, only five lines survive in a book written by Theodore bar Kuni, a seventh-century writer. 3 * 5 Bar Daysan had several companions and disciples who translated his writings into Greek. All or some of these writings reached Eusebius of Caesaria, who praised Bar Daysan in his Ecclesiastical History, because of his preoccupation with preaching the Gospels at the begin- ning. Eusebius also ascribed to him a dialogu e opposing Marcoan the heretic, and a treatise on Fortune which was also mentioned by Epiphanius and Jerome. How- ever, this latter treatise may be the treatise entitled The Laws of the Countries, as many con temporary historians of literature maintain. 6 3. The Psalms and Praises of Solomon The sixty-one Psalms ascribed to Solomon and com- posed after the Psalms of David are attractive in their poetic style and beauty of meanings. Most of these psalms are a passionate spiritual communion with God. They praise God, and deeply adhere to Him, placing ultimate confidence in Him and exclaiming His irrefut- able might and will which administer all of His creation. They also profess the Holy Trinity, the Incarnation of Christ the Word of God, His birth from the Virgin Mary, and His power and dominion. These psalms were discovered a short time ago in 1909 by the English Orientalist Rendel Harris near the Tigris. Harris found a small Syriac book slightly imper- fect at the beginning and at the end, written in the beginning of the fifteenth century in a good and clear hand. This book contains forty-two short hymns or psalms and comprises one hundred and twelve pages. Upon comparing this manuscriptwith an ancien t manu- script in the British Museum (MS. 14538) which origi- nally belonged to the Monastery of the Syrians in Egypt and was written in the Estrangelo script combined with the Western script around the tenth or the eleventh century, Harris found out that approximately nineteen of these psalms were attributed to Solomon. They were lengthy, one of them comprising fifty-two verses. Harris also used a peculiar collection called Pistis Sophia which contains some of the psalms of Solomon in the Coptic (Thebean) language, also translated into Latin. He copied from it the parts lacking in the Syriac copy and together with Alphonse Mingana published the entire collection with an English translation in 1916, relying on the mentioned copy. Both Harris and Mingana think that this copy needs only six pages at the begin- ning and at the end in order to be complete. The majority of scholars who studied these psalms think that they were either written by Bar Daysan or by one of his disciples. They also fixed their date at the close of the second or the beginning of the third century. Others thought they were written by an agnos- tic prior to the era of Bar Daysan, who, it seems, has read them. Chabot thinks that (the psalms) were written at the end of the first or the beginning of the second century. 4. Theophilus of Edessa (309) Theophilus of Edessa is a man of letters who wrote the account of the martyrdom of Guriyya, Shamuna, and the deacon Habib in the year 307-309. 5. Isaiah bar Hadbo ( 327 ) Isaiah bar Habdo of Arzun, one of the cavalrymen of the Persian King, Shapur II, composed a splendid account of the struggle of the ten martyrs, Zebina and Lazarus and their companions in Arzun in the year 327. He was an eye witness of their deaths and his account of the martyrdom of these ten men has been published. 6. Miles, bishop of Sus (d. 341) Miles, bishop of Sus (the city of Shushan) in the year 317 A.D., was one of the great propagators of Christian- ity in Sus and Elam, and was also of the best bishops of the East. He was martyred for his faith in 341 A.D. According to Yeshu the Subawi, Miles wrote many letters and various other compositions, none of which is extant. 7. Simon bar Sabbai (d. 343) Mar Simon bar Sabbai or Sabbaghin (son of the dyers) belonged to a wealthy family from Ctesiphon or Sus. In 328 he was ordained an archdeacon and then Catholicos of Seleucia and Ctesiphon, and adminis- tered his congregation in an apostolic manner. The ardent zeal he displayed for Christianity led to his martyrdom by order of the tyrant Shapur II in 343. He composed charming spiritual songs only four of which survive. They were published by Kmosko. 7 Yeshu the Subawi has attributed to him the writing of some letters. 8. Aphrahat the Persian (364) Aphrahat, nicknamed the Persian Sage, was born a 77 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences heathen in some part of Persia, was converted to Chris- tianity and became a monk. Some writers gave him the name ofjacob and ascribed to him the office of bishop. Other writers thought that he became a bishop of the monastery of Mar Matta. However, there is no definite proof that he was a bishop. Furthermore, relating him to a monastery of Mar Matta is no doubt erroneous, because the said monastery was not yet founded in his time. Aphrahat was distinguished for his piety. He studied the Holy Bible thoroughly, and between 337 and 340 wrote a large book which he called The Homilies. This book contains twenty-three treatises on faith, love of neighbor, fasting, prayier, wars, monks, eulogies and the resurrection of the dead. Also among subjects dis- cussed are humility, spiritual shepherds, circumcision, the Passover, the Sabbath, and a universal epistle to bishops, priests, and deacons, on righteous conduct and peaceful living. These homilies also contained treatises on distinguishing foods, call of the heathen nations to Christianity, Christ being the Son of God, virginity, the dispersion of the Jews, charity toward the poor, persecution, the last days, and the Cluster of Grapes. Aphrahat’s style is lucid, smooth, and unpretentious; yet it becomes boring. His teaching is orthodox. How- ever, he fixed the span of the world at six thousand years and was refuted by George, bishop of the Arabs. Of Aphrahat’s Homilies there survives three copies written in the fifth and sixth centuries, one of which was commented on in the year 512. His work was translated into Latin and published in an elegant edition by Parisot in 1907. 8 It was also translated into German. 9. St Ephraim the Syrian (d. 373) St Ephraim is unquestionably the master of the Syriac language and the poet par excellence of the Syrians. He possessed the innate properties of creative- ness, poetic versatility, and the ability to present many meanings in few words. His style is solid, powerful, fluent and eloquent. In poetry he practiced an entirely new doctrine in which he was seldom rivaled. He distin- guished himself by his abundant subject matter, fertile imagination and naturalness. In all these he takes palm. Into these poems he incorporated lofty ideas and noble meanings which would inspire his readers to the highest spheres of piety and submissiveness, and worship. St. Ephraim was an example of conscientiousness and religious zeal. His heart was completely dominated by the love of God. And so this is why he was described as “The Prophet of the Syrians,” “The Sun of the Syrians,” “The Harp of the Holy Spirit,” and the “Possessor of Wisdom.” Moreover, Christendom professed his leadership while he was still alive and chanted his songs, praising God through them. St. Ephraim was born in the early part of the fourth century into a Christian family, (contrary to some ac- counts which maintain that he was born a heathen and was converted to Christianity in the prime of his life) . His upbringing ennobled his character. In the prime of youth he deserted the world and accompanied St. Jacob, bishop of Nisibin, who was renowned for his purity and holiness. Besides righteousness Ephraim learned much of what was unique in Syriac literature. He entered a monastic order, was ordained a deacon and taught for thirty-eightyearsatthe school of Nisibin, which has been founded by his master. He also worked under his successors, the Bishops Baboy, Walgash and Ibrahim, and composed part of his songs known as the Songs of Nisibin. By the year 359 he had achieved wide fame. In the year 363 he left his country as a result of the Persian invasion and moved to Edessa, settling in its Holy Mountain where he was highly welcomed by its ascetics. He expanded the school of Edessa, which, as a result of his contributions and knowledge, became widely famous. It was at this school that he opened the treasures of his knowledge and commented on the Old and the New Testaments. Furthermore, he wrote many excellent poems and masterpieces of canticles. His poetry had become the model of eloquence. Many studied under him. He was an abstinent and ascetical person, sober, understanding, serene and original. He was a flaming fire which burned the tare of the misguided heretics, a brilliant master and a faithful soldier, keeping watch on the strongholds of Orthodoxy. He died on the 9th of June, 373, nearing seventy years of age. Over his re- mains a monastery, known as the Lower Monastery, was built in the neighborhood of Edessa. The Church com- memorates him on the first Sabbath of the Lent. Of the prose writing of St. Ephraim have come down to us the comentary on the Book of Genesis, part of the Book of Exodus 9 and fragments of the rest of the Books of the scriptures, interspersed in the collection of the monk Severus (d. 861). In these commentaries he relied on the Pshitto version. Of his writings also surive an Armenian translation of his commentary on the Diatessaron version of the Gospel, a commen tary on the Pauline Epistles (except for a few verses which may be found in the commentary on the Gospel by Yeshu Dad al-Mrarwazi) and some discourses containing commen- taries on chapters of the Holy Bible. We have red selected chapters from a book of his called The Book of Opinions, 10 two discourses against the heretics Hypatius and Domnus, two treatises on the love of the Most High, and supplications, a letter to the monks who dwelt in the mountains. 1 ' He also wrote stories of the Apostles. Of these, the story of St. Peter the Apostle has survived and has been published. 12 However, the most outstanding of St. Ephraim’s writings are his maymars (metrical homilies composed in the seven-syllabic meter which isattributed to him) as well as his madrashes (metrical songs). All of these maymars and madrashes deal with religious subjects such as the divinity of the Lord Christ, His humanity, teach- 78 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences ings, His church, Apostles, martyrs, commentaries on the Holy Bible, prayer, fasting, charity and worship. Some of these madrashes pertain to monks, the Resur- rection, prayers for the dead, on the scarcity of rain and other subjects. He also composed songs describing virginity, the Sacraments of the church, and the Nativity of the Lord. The most beautiful of these is an alphabeti- cal song which impresses its charm on hearts and its lofty theological truths on minds. 13 He also composed songs on Epiphany, Easter, the Resurrection, the call of the Apostles, the attributes of the catholic (universal) church, the Virgin and other saints. He also eulogized some of his contemporary bishops and ascetics such as Ibrahim al-Qayduni, andjulian the Aged. He wrote on repentance, a refutation of Bar Daysan, the heretics and Julian the Apostate. The number of his poems (some of which have been lost) is unknown. Howevever, Bar Hebraeus in his Hudoye (Nomocanon) mentions two hundred and fourteen poemsby St. Ephraim combined with those of Mar Isaac, but his number includes only a selection of his maymars whose reading by the clergy was made obligatory. What is known of these maymars are fifteen maymars on the Epiphany, one on the Palm festival, fifteen on the Passover, five on the Passion of Our Lord, two on the Resurrection, and the reception of Holy Communion on Easter Sunday, and one on Low Sunday. He also wrote two on the birth of the Blessed Virgin, St. Andrew the Apostle, the evangelization of the country of Kalkh or the Killitites, three on Job, two on Sts. Sergius and Bacchus and Demete, twenty on the martyrs, five on the death of bishops, priests, deacons, perfect monks, children and everybody else and seven on the composition of man. Other subjects are: solitude for worship, sojournment, the next world, the end of time, humility and love of mammon. He wrote eleven on condolences and the next world, seven on supplica- tions, wisdom, counsel, faith, knowledge and repen- tance, one on the saying of Isaiah: “The sinner shall be taken away, that he shall not see the glory of the Lord,” ten on the blessings of meals, four on Julian the Apos- tate, and twenty on diverse subjects. Mgr. Rahamani published two volumes of these maymars. The first of these contains thirty-one may mars as well as fragments of other maymars, such as those on the blessings of meals, the fall of the city of Nicomedia, purity of heart, peni- tence, and God’s care for us. Other topics include vigilence, repentance, injustice, ascetics, Job the Righ- teous, the refutation of Bar Daysan, the seige of Nisibin, and Satan enticing people to sin. The second volume contained several maymars which he composed on the scarcity of rain. He has also a magnificent five-syllabic maymar in which he addresses himself; it begins thus: “How often I hungered.” He also composed a famous metrical testament to which have been added many interpolations which have nothing to do with the origi- nal. 14 He also composed a metrical supplication. Following are his known maymars: 87 maymars on faith and against those who doubt faith, 85 on funerals, 76 on enjoinment for repentance, 15 on the earthly paradise, 51 on virginity and the mysteries of our Lord, which are most illuminating, 77 known as the maymars of Nisibin which he composed between 350 and 363, of which 60 survived (published by Bicke). Twenty of these maymars were composed in Nisibin and contained an account of the calamities which this city suffered in the siege of the year 350 and during the Persian War (359-363) . They also contain some eulogies on the bishops of Nisibin mentioned earlier. The rest of the maymars were composed in Edessa, five containing the record of events of the church of Edessa, four on the worship of idols in the city of Harran and on its bishop Petes and some on the city of Anazete. The restare on the Passion of our Lord, His Resurrection and resurrection of the dead. Of these maymars composed in Edessa, 15 are on the Nativity of our Lord, 15 on Divine Manifestation, 15 on unleav- ened bread, 52 on the church, 56 on refutation of heresies, 17 on Ibrahim al-Qayduni, 24 on Julian Sobo (the Aged), 20 on martyrs, 15 on preaching and 18 on diverse subjects. 15 The most ancient choral books mention that the scales of the madrashes (metrical songs) 16 which he composed are five hundred. However, the largest of these choral books contained only one hundred fifty-six scales, while the majority of them contained no more than forty-five scales (which have been mixed up with other scales composed in imitation of the form and content of St. Ephraim’s scales). This doctor also composed part of the songs known as the Shohre and the Inyans, also, some takkhsheftos (supplicatory hymns) and cathismata were attributed to him, as was formerly mentioned. 17 Philoxenus of Mabug citred two books by him, the first of which he called The Fanqith (Book) of the Refutation of fews and Heresies (also mentioned by the writer of the chronicle of Seert 18 ). The second is The Fanqith (Book) of the Martyrs of Nisibin 19 which contains a collection of some of St. Ephraim’s madrashes, mainly the fanqith on faith, the church, unleavened bread, and Nisibin (which have been cited by Anton ofTakrit. 20 To St. Ephraim was attributed a book entitled The Cave of Treasures, which contains the story of Adam and Eve after they had been expelled from the Garden of Eden and the genealogy of the tribes of Israel. This book was written in the sixth century. 21 Also attributed to him was an excellent panegyric of twelve melodies on Jo- seph, the son of Jacob. This, in the opinion of Bar Shushan is either the composition of Isaac or Balai, bishop of Balsh, and not the composition of some teachers of the school of Edessa, as some writers thought. The reader will also find in the three volumes published in Latin between 1737 and 1743 by the two monks Butrus (Peter) Mubarak and Stephen Awwad (Assemani) about 300 maymars, most of which were ascribed to St 79 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences Ephraim. They are, to be sure, the composition of some of his disciples or the composition of Isaac, Jacob of Saruj, Narsai or other. Between 1882 and 1902 Thomas Lamy also published in Malines four volumes contain- ing St. Ephraim’s maymars and hymns. Some of these were also published in Oxford and Leipzig. Contempo- rary scholars, however, are anxious to have a better and more accurate edition of Sl Ephraim’s works. Fifty-one of SL Ephraim’s treatises were translated from Greek into Arabic in the eleventh century have come down to us. The Syriac origin of these treatises has been lost.* 2 The commentary of Sl Ephraim on the Holy Bible and others of his writings were translated into Greek either in his lifetime or in the first decade after his death. 25 These translations were read by Gregory of Nyssa who eulogized him in a magnificent homily. Some of his writings were also translated into Arme- nian, Coptic, Ethiopian and Latin. Some contemporary critics hold the opinion that St. Ephraim was a moralistic writer and preacher more than a theologian. This is true, because very little of dogmatic research is found in his maymars and songs, even those distorted by the heretics. However, his maymars gained fame and popularity on acccunt of his holiness. Some critics state that what fascinates the reader about St Ephraim are his firey mind and the allegories in his poems. These brave and artistic pic- tures and symbols and the broad imagination which his poetry contained are characteristic of the oriental poets - a style unknown to the Greek or Latin poets. However, these critics say that St. Ephraim’s poetry has little creativeness, lofty thoughts or enthusiasm. 24 Another critic, who is more fair, says thatwhat he (St. Ephraim) has written was meant to be for the people and monks and therefore did not penetrate deeply into theological theories. However, in his moralistic dis- courses he incorporated a spark of zeal and firey enthu- siasm which permeated the core of the heart. All that he has written, even though (topics) on which he wrote with utmost prolixity, were in the eyes of his closest readers a symbol of superb rhetoric; for the writer is the reflection of his environment. 25 The claim that St. Ephraim has little creativeness, lofty thoughts or enthusiasm is unfair. It is refuted by the unanimity of those (scholars) who have sound taste. Again, he should not be blamed for his prolixity, since itwas a trait of the ancient Syrian writers and others. No doubt, this method is incompatible with our modem taste. Nevertheless, the least which could be said about St Ephraim is that the comprehension of some of his poems requires mental exertion. John of Atharb (d. 735) wrote to Jacob of Edessa, asking for the explana- tion of some of St. Ephraim’s poems. How valuable it would have been, if some brilliant scholars who lived close to his time wlould have commented upon his poems and unravelled their obscurities. 10-13. The Pupils of St. Ephraim The most famous of St. Ephraim’s pupils are Aba, the deacon Zenobius, Asuna, Simon of Samosata andjulian. However, they do not have the genius of their master. As to Aba, he wrote a commentary on the Gospels, metrical homilies in the fifth-syllabic meter, a homily on Job the Righteous 26 and a seven-syllabic ode. 27 Anton of Takrit cited him twice in his treatise on the Chrism. Zenobius was a d eacon at the church of Edessa. He is known as “The Jazri” either in relation to the Upper Jazira, i.e., the country of theBanu Rabi’a, or because at the beginning of his career he was a soldier; but not in relation to the Jazirat ibn Umar, which was not inhab- ited at that time. Zenobius wrote down the biography of his master and also wrote letters and treatises in refuta- tion of Marcion and Pamphilius. 28 Bar Kifa cited him twice in his Book of the Six Days. Simon likewise wrote down the biography of his tewcher; Julian ccmposed songs and wrote refutations of Marcion and the doutful critics. He was eroneously named Paulonas and was accused of heresy in the Testament of his master. The entire writings of these pupils, except for a few fragments, have been lost. 14. Asuna Although it is mentioned in some manuscripts that Asuna was the teacher of St. Ephraim, others maintain he was Sl Ephraim’s pupil as was the case. Asuna was the most intelligent of St. Ephraim’s pupils and had the ability to manipulate freely in composition as well as in the types of poetry, for he composed eloquent poetry in the four-syllabic and the six-syllabic meters. Of his poetry two poems for funerals have come down to us. We have read in a British Museum MS. No. 14520 madrashes of masterful poetry in the five-syllabic meter composed by a brilliant poet, which we think could not have been composed except by one of St. Ephraim’s pupils (Asuna). Anton of Takrit alluded to Asuna in the tenth canon of the fifth treatise of his book The Knowl- edge of Rhetoric. Although Asuna attained the highest degree of ascetical virtues, yet he stumbled and fell into a net of fantasies, where he finally died, a wretch. In this regard, Philoxenus of Mabug wrote to Patrice, the ascetic in the mountain of Edessa the following: “I think that you have been informed about Asuna who had been in Edessa and who had composed madrashes'which (the people) chant until this our day. Because he longed for these fantasies, Satan deceived him, lured him out of his cell, made him stand on the Mountain of F.stadiun and showed him the form of a chariot and horses and said to him: ‘God has called you toliftyouup by the chariot as he lifted up Elijah,’ and when he became deceived for his foolishness and rose up to climb the chariot, the fantasies vanished and he fell down from a very high altitude and died a laughable death. "This same account was mentioned byNicine the Malkite, abbot of the Monastery of Mar Simon (d. 80 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences 1072), in the thirty-fourth treatise of his book Al-Hawi al-Kabir (The Great Comprehensive Book) . 15. The Priest Absmayya The priest Absmayya, or Abd al-Sama (The Slave of Heaven ) is the son of St. Ephraim’s sister; most probably he studied under St Ephraim. He became popular for composing songs and maymars regarding the Huns’ invasion of Mesopotamia and al-Sham (Syria) in the year 395, (according to a second account, in the year 404). The two dates could be correct because those invaders twice attacked these countries. 29 16. Isaac of Amid (363-418?) According tojacob of Edessa, Isaac was born at Amid and studied under St. Ephraim during his short stay in that city in the year 363, and later completed his study under Zenobius, a pupil of St. Ephraim. He composed excellent odes in the seven-syllabic meter. An Ortho- dox, he became a monk at a monastery belonging to the Western (Syrians) . According to the historian Zachariah, bishop of Mitylene, “Isaac the Syrian Doctor lived in the time of Arcadius and Theodosius (395-450), and be- came publicly known after the time of St. Ephraim and his pupils. He journeyed to Rome and other countries; to Rome in the time of Arcadius in order to watch the opening of the citadel of the Capitol. He composed two poems on the secular games (celebrated at Rome) in the year 404 and on the capture of the city of Rome by Alaric in 41 0. U pon his return, he stayed for a short time at the city of Byzantium and was also putintojail. When he finally returned to Amid, he was ordained a priest. He left many writings full of profitable information on many topics from the Book of God (The Holy Bible) . 90 We will mention later the metrical hymns ascribed to him and to his two namesakes. He is commemorated by the Church. 17. The Monk Dada of Amid In volume l,p. 103 of his Ecclesiastical History, following hisaccounton Isaac of Amid, the same Bishop Zachariah said: “The monk Dada who came from the village of Simqa or Simqe in the neighborhood of Amid was a brilliantmanwhohad been delegated by the dignitaries to Caesar (to discuss) the captivity and the faminewhich afflicted the countries in his time. He was courteously received (by Caesar). We have found about three hun- dred discourses or maymars written by him on many topics of the scriptures and the affairs of the Saints. We have also found madrashes composed by him.” All of his compositions have been lost and no trace of them can be found. 18. The Writer of the Biography of Eusebius of Samosata Saint Eusebius of Samosata, because of his piety, good conduct and protection of the Orthodox truth, was gifted by God to perform miracles. He was conse- crated a bishop of Samosata shortly before the year 359, fought the good fight in serving the persecuted Church of God, and was exiled for the cause of its true faith. 91 He died in 379 as a confessor and martyr of his zeal (for the Church). Shordy after his death, his biography was written by one of his contemporaries in an eloquent style. This biography was published by Bedjan. 19. Cyrillona Cryillona was a poet who had a good poetic style, splendid introductory verses and subtle and charming meanings. His style ranks with that of proficient poets and does not fall short of the poetry of his forerunners. We found no mention of him in the books of learned men. However, his name is mentioned in a single old manuscript at the British Museum, 92 which contains eloquent poems, madrashes and a poem in the four- syllabic meter which he composed on the pestilences in his time, such as the pestilence of the locusts which denuled the land of Edessa. This manuscript also con- tains poems on the Huns’ invasion around the year 396, the Last Supper, the Crucifixion, the Apostle Thomas and a seven-syllabic poem on the grain of wheat. The rest of the poems in this manuscript include six or seven poems in five-syllabic meterand a portion of asughithon Zacchaeus the Publican, all of which were published by Bickell in 1870. Some contemporary writers claim that Cyrillona is Qayora, the principal of the school of Edessa, an incredible claim which cannot be positively decided. 20. Ahi, Catholicosof al-Madain (Ctesiphon) (d. 415) Ahi the Catholicos of al-Madain was an ascetic who spent most of his time in fasting and in extending charity to strangers. A doctor, he was consecrated a catholicos at the end of the year 410 and died at the beginning of the year 415. He wrote a book into which he incorporated the chronicles of the martyrs of the East. Besides, he wrote down the story of Mar Abda from whom he adopted the monastic life. These chronicles were fixed by Daniel bar Mary in his Ecclesiastical His- tory. 99 21. Mana the Catholicos (d. 420) Mana studied at Edessa and became well-versed in both Syriac and Persian. He translated many books from Syriac into Persian, but they are either unknown or lost. After his consecration as a metropolitan of Persia, he was promoted to the Catholicate See of al- Madain, which he administered for a few months. He was deposed in the year 420. M 22. Marutha of Miyafarqin (d. 421 ) This dignitary was a distinguished man of letters who knew Syriac and Greek. In addition, he was a skillful and pious physician, an intelligent sage and a clever states- 81 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences man , whose good qualities were many an d whose achieve- ments were commendable. He was ordained a bishop of Miyafarqin in the eighth decade of the fourth century. Photius relates that in the year 383, he (Marutha) attended the Council of Sidon to refute the heretical worshippers. He also journeyed to Antioch and some parts of Asia Minor as well as Constantinople and participated in the case of John Chrysostom and Theophilius of Alexandria. For his excellence, he was delegated three times in the years 399, 403 and 408, by the Caesars Aracadius and Theodosius II to Yazdegerd I, the Persian King. He remained in Persia un til 41 0, and through his efforts, the Christians in Persian territory obtained safety and were freed from their afflictions. In the year 410, with Isaac I, catholicos of al-Madain, he presided over a council which they held at Selueucia, whose minutes have been incorporated in the Collection of the Eastern Canons. Marutha wrote the biographies of the most famous Eastern martyrs who were tortured by tyrant Sapur II, nicknamed Dhu al-Aktaf “He of the Shoulders” in the Forty-Years Persecution (339-379). These biographies were first translated into Latin and published by Assemani and were later published by the monk Paul Bedjan. 55 They are most eloquent and inter- esting biographies. The orientalists, however, doubted whether these biographies belonged ipsissimis verbis to Marutha. The writer of these biographies, was most probably more than one, and they were written in more than one place. Perhaps some of these biographies were written at his (Marutha’s) request, and others were written before his time, but he had them compiled in order to translate them into Greek. The Subawi also ascribes to him the translation of the canons of the Council of Nicaea from the Greek into Syriac as well as his history and the hymns which he composed about the martyrs. He moved a great number of their noble remains to Miyafarqin, which as a result, came to be known as Martyropolis (The City of Martyrs). He is thought to have died in the year 421.* 23. Rabula, metropolitan of Edessa (d. 435) Rabula was born a heathen at the city of Qinnesrin of a noble and wealthy ancestry, but his mother was a Christian. When he was still a young man, Rabula became Christian, distributed his property among the poor, deserted his wife and became a virtuous monastic at the monastery of Mar Ibrahim. In 41 1 he succeeded Diogynus as a metropolitan of Edessa, which he admin- istered for twenty-four years. He died on the seventh of August, 435. He was ascetical in his own living, and very firm and strict with his parishioners. When the Council of Ephesus ccnvened in the year 431, he sided with the Patriarch John of Antioch, but shortly later on he leaned towards Cyril, patriarch of Alexandria. And when he anathematized Theodore of Mopsuestiajohn excommunicated him. During that time he translated some of the writings of Cyril from the Greek into Syriac, such as the book of The True Faith which he compiled and sent to Caesar Theodosius. 56 In the year 433 John and his party were reconciled with Cyril and Rabula. At that time Rabula had acquired the greatest and most profitable knowledge of the Syriac and Greek litera- tures. He also wrote in Syriac the takhshejlos, which are associated with his name, for the principal feasts and for the Virgin (Mary), and the saints with some on repen- tance and for the dead. These takhshejlos probably comprised as many as seven hundred lines of (poetry) . 57 He also enacted for the monks, priests and ascetic women eighty-nine canons which are preserved in the books of ecclesiastical laws. 58 Furthermore, he wrote forty-six letters to bishops, priests, princes, nobles, monks, of which one letterwas delivered to Andrew, the Nestorian bishop of Samosata, rebuking him for oppos- ing the the twelve anathemas of Cyril. He also wrote a letter to Gemellinus, bishop of Perrhe, rebuking some who misused the reception of Holy Communion, 58 and two homilies, one of which he delivered at Constantinople, refuting the doctrine ofNestorius, and the second on the dead. 40 In some of his lectures, Cyril described him as “The Pillar ofTruth.” Rabula is counted among the saints. 24. Balai, bishop of Balsh No one in olden times happened to write down Balai’s biography; even Jacob of Bartulli and Bar Hebraeus had no precise information about him. How- ever, some contemporary writers think he was one of Sl E phraim’s pupils. More correctly, he had studied under one of St. Ephraim’s pupils. What we do know about him is that he was a chorepiscopus of the church of Aleppo. He was also a companion and an associate of Acacius, its metropolitan, whose death he witnessed in the year 432 and whom he had eulogized in five elo- quent madrashes composed in the five-syllabic meter. 41 According to Bar Shushan (d. 1072) he became a bishop of the city of Balsh (Perpalisus), called today Maskanah, which lies east of Aleppo to the south. 42 He was also mentioned as having this rank (ofabishop) and this generic name (of Balsh) in a Beth Gaz transcribed in the year l7l6. 45 Furthermore, he was called “a bishop” in a table containing the name of our scholars, tran- scribed by Isaac, metropolitan of Cyprus in 1550. 44 Most likely he died in the fifth decade of the fifth century, because his name was not mentioned in the two Synods of 449 and 451. Duval is mistaken in counting him among the scholars of the fourth century. Balai composed many poems in the five-syl labic meter, which is ascribed to him. Most of these poems became a part of our church rituals concerning repentance, the dead and other briefs. It is quite unfortunate that no one cared to compile his poems. In 1902 Zettersteen published in Leipzig one hundred thirty-four poems ascribed to him, sixty-five bear his name and sixty-nine are thought to be his. 45 However, it is difficult to distin- 82 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences guish his poems because they are mixed up with those of other poets. One of his compositions is a maymar on the consecration of the church of Qinnesrin 46 which was published by Overbeck together with the poems for- merly mentioned. What most likely belongs to him is an elegy of Uriah the Hittite which has been alluded to by Anton of Takrit in the tenth canon of the fifth treatise (of his book The Fnowledge of Rhetoric) , poems in praise of Saint George, a poem on the death of Aaron 47 and the account of Phostinus and Mytrodora in the story of Clement of Rome. 48 Mention has already been made of the select poem in praise ofjoseph the Righteous which is ascribed either to him or to the Doctor Isaac. 49 25. The Deacon Jacob (451) Jacob was a deacon and a man of letters in Edessa. He accompanied Nonnus, metropolitan of Edessa, to Antioch. He wrote the life story of Pelagia, who aban- doned dissoluteness and repented through the efforts of the previously mentioned magnanimous Metropoli- tan (Nonnus) about the year 451. 26. The Monk Samuel (458) Samuel became well-versed in the arts of literature, entered the monastic life and kept the company of Barsoum of Samosata, head of the anchorites, where he was counted as one of his most noble disciples. Around the year 458 he wrote down the story of his master, which was already mentioned and to which interpola- tions have been added. He also praised him by many splendid maymars and madrashes, one of which we found composed in the melody of “Rise up, O Paul.” A state- ment at the end of the aforementioned story says that he also wrote homilies on faith and on many other subjects. Furthermore, he wrote excellent commentaries, and treatises in refutuation of heresies, and composed po- ems and hymns, all of which have been lost 27. The Priest Samuel (467) The priest Samuel of Edessa was a bitter enemy of Hiba (Ibas) theNestorian Metropolitan of Edessa, and one of the first clergymen to commplain against Hiba to the second Council of Ephesus in 449, as is evident from reading his proclamation in the acts of this Council. He also wrote Syriac treatises refuting his (Hiba’s) devia- tion from the truth and also refuting the heresy of Eutyches. Most likely he spent his life at Constantinople, where he was still living in the year 467. He was men- tioned, about the year 496, by the Latin writer Gennadius of Marseilles in the twenty-eighth tract of his series called Famous Men, in which he (Gennadius) followed the book of Anba Hieronymous (Jerome) , which bears the same tide. 28. The Priest Cosmas (472) The priest Cosmas was born at the village of Fanir in the province ofQallisura. He is reported to have written a letter to Simon the Stylite, and on April 7, 472, he wrote down in good Syriac style his (Simon’s) lengthy biography at the request of Simon bar Apholon and Barhattar son of Hadaurun. 29-30 The Two Priests Peter and Muqim Gennadius of Marseilles mentioned that Peter, the Presbyter of Edessa was a plain and fluent orator. He composed maymars and hymns in the seven-syllabic meter in praise of St. Ephraim. He lived about the year 490. Gennadius also mentioned in his tract one hun- dred and seventy-one of Series of Famous Men that the Presbyter Muqim of Mesopotamia refuted the heresy of Eutyches around he year 494. This is all that is knowm about these two Presbyters. 31. Isaac of Edessa, known as Isaac of Antioch (491?) No one of the ancient historianswrote the biography of Isaac the Edessan (by birth) and the Antiochian (by domicile) . However, the first one to write about him, quoting the learned authorities of his time, wasjacob of Edessa. In his letter to John the Stylite of Atharib, Jacob said, “This Isaac was an Edessan presbyter as well as a poet and an Orthodox Doctor. He became highly fa- vored in the time of the Caesar Zeno. He journeyed to Antioch in the time of the Patriarch Peter II (470-488), known as “Peter the Fuller” 50 during the Nestorians’ controversy (mainly against the Trisagion). At Antioch he saw a man from the East carrying a parrot which repeated the Trisagion, as the owner has taught it to do, to check the obstinacy of those who opposed this for- mula. He liked the spectacle and composed a Syriac poem about it” 51 This poem was ascribed to him as Isaac of Antioch because he resided in this city. He was also mentioned by this generic name (of Antioch) in a manuscript written in the seventh century, entitled Selected Tracts of the Fathers. 52 However, in his history entitled al-Unwan, Agapius the Malkite Greek bishop of Mabug, who was living about the year 940 A.D. said, “One of the scholars of this time (about the year 422) was Mar Isaac, the pupil of St, Ephraim (sic), who had his residence in Antioch. He has many maymars on feasts, martyrs, wars, and the invasions which took place at that time. Concerning his origin, he was from the people of Edessa.” (sic). 53 In theyear 431, Isaac witnessed the Council of Ephesus as is mentioned in the Series of the Councils. 5 * Therefore, Isaac named Isaac of Antioch is this Isaac 55 and not Isaac of Amid as was erroneously thought by the Orientalists. He is also the one who composed the poem on the earthquake which destroyed Antioch in the year 459 and the two poems on the invasion of Beth Hur about the year 491. Furthermore, he did not die in the year 460 as the Orientalists claim. It is evident that Isaac of Amid did not live until this time, because it has been established that he was associated with St. Ephraim for a period in the year 363 wnile he was, at the least, close 83 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences to twenty. His birth, therefore, must have occurred about the year 343. Moreover, if he had lived to be one hundred and seventeen years old, he or someone else would have men tion ed this fact. Surely, th e most learn ed Jacob of Edessa is the best informed of all the historians about Isaac’s affairs. 32. Isaac, the Second, of Edessa (522) Marjacob (of Edessa) himself related that this Isaac was also an Orthodox clergyman at the church of Edessa. Michael the Great and Bar Hebraeus state that he was an abbot of a monastery and lived at the begin- ning ol the sixth century in the time of Paul, metropoli- tan of Edessa. He composed his poems according to the Orthodox doctrine. But when Paul was deposed and was replaced by the Malkite Bishop Asdepius who began to propagate his own doctrine, Isaac joined forces with him against Paul and proceeded to compose poetry in support of his new doctrine. The three Isaacs, namely, Isaac of Antioch and the two Isaacs of Edessa, were poets who composed master- pieces of poetry in the sevensyllabic meter. However, because they lived about the same time and because their poetical talents were very much alike, their poems were confused among the transcribers so that their distinction, except very rarely, became difficult. About two hundred poems ascribed to them 56 have come down to us, sixty-seven poems covering 837 pages were pub- lished by Bedjan. They were composed by Isaac of Amid and very few of them were composed by Isaac, the Antiochian of Edessa. This published anthology by Bedjan requires extensive investigation and elaborate critical examination in order to distinguish the exquis- ite poems which have been ascribed, in the Urmia copy, to Isaac of Nineveh the Nestorian. Following is a list of the published poems: (metrical discourses): poems on the love of learning and the humility of the brethren monks; eight poems on re- buke, one of which scolds the blasphemers and another on compunction; a poem on the dead; a poem on the anchorite ascetics; a poem on the hereafter; four poems on repentance; a poem on monks; a poem on Lazarus and the rich man; a poem on renouncing worldly things and on true freedom; a poem on those who complain against each other during the time of prayer; a poem on Lent; a poem on Constantine the King; three depreca- tory or intercessory poems; a poem on the perfection of the brethren monks; a hortatory poem on giving alms; a poem on the sign which appeared in the firmament and one against fortune tellers; a poem on fasting, alms and monastic perfection; a poem against falsehood; a poem on the natural discernment of the natural mind; a poem on the verse from Isaiah “All flesh is grass; ” 57 a poem on how Satan overcomes man in time of ordeal; eight poems on Solitaries; a poem on the perfection of monks and their renunciation of the world; two poems on the invasion of the town or village of Beth Hur in the province of Edessa (within the Roman-Byzatine terri- tory which was invaded and desroyed by the Arabians in the year 457). He also mentioned that the Persians inculcated the people of this village with Sun worship and implanted worship of idols in the Arabians. And when the Arabians invaded it, they inculcated its inhab- itants with the worship of Venus and Uzi. The inhabit- ants of Beth Hur had an idol called Jizlath. They also worshipped the sun and the moon. There were also Christians in Beth Hur, but they perverted Christicanity. He also said that the Arabian bedouin invaders were barefooted, corrupt and dissolute. Moreover, they slaughtered their sons and daughters as a sacrifice to the Planet Venus. However, after the invasion they were murdered by the swords of the Persians, and the rest of them were annhilated by the plague. Then the Huns came and invaded the Persians (sic). He composed these two poems in the year 491. Of his published poems are also a poem on the blasphemers; on the changeableness of creation and of the mind; on the giving of alms; two poems on faith; a poem on stating everything that God does is meant to be for the benefit of man, be it captivity, war, famine or death; a poem on the saying of the poet: “Who would dismantle my body then rebuilt me and restore me as a new virgin in my creation;” a poem on faith and on the refutation of Nestorius and Eutyches; a poem on the suffering of the Word of God who was incarnate and on his non-suffering; a poem on the bird which shouted the Trisagion ; a poem on faith and on the Body of our Lord; a poem on faith in refutation of the heresies of Nestorius and Eutyches; a poem on our Lord and on faidi;apoem on dieincarnadon of our Lord; a poem on the chariot; a poem on the worldly vigil which took place in Antioch and which he opposed by the recita- tion of the verse from the Psalms: “I t is good to thank the Lord” and two poems against those who resort to sooth- sayers. There are also seven maymars at the library of St. Mark’s Monastery in Jerusalem on the Nativity, the Virgin, Baptism and the Holy Eucharist. 58 There are also several maymars at the Zafaran library. 59 the Patriarch John bar Shushan had proceeded to collect the poems of St. Ephraim and Mar Isaac, but death prevented the completion of his effort. At the Vatican library there is a manuscriptcontaining sixty maymars, copied from Bar Shushan ’s copy. 60 A second copy of the same manu- script contains forty maymars. 61 Of the composition of Isaac the first and Isaac the second, we also have sughilhs, 62 of which one is com- posed on the reality of the divinity and the humanity of Christ againstcontentious heretics. Itbeginsthus: “The voice of the Church ran in my ear.” We have translated the text of this sughith and published it in Arabic. 65 Furthermore, we have daily supplications 64 as well as sixteen madrashes on the Eucharist and three madrashes on the coming of our Lord. 65 There are poems fraught 84 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences with theological, literary, philological, ritualistic and social benefits. All of them are clear evidence that their composers are masterful and natural poets of the first class. 33. The Chorepiscopus Polycarp (508) Polycarp the Chorepiscopus of the diocese of Mabug was a skillful translator, well-versed in the literatures of both the Syriac and Greek languages. He achieved fame in the period between 500 and 508 by translating the Holy Bible from Greek into Syriac at the request of Philoxenus, metropolitan of Mabug. He called this translation by the name of Philoxenus and hence it came to be known as the Philoxenian translation. 66 The first parts of the Holy Bible which he translated were the Pauline Epistles, then the New Testament, i.e., the Gospels. He then followed by translating the Psalms. If we may believe a comment mentioned in one of the manuscripts. Polycarp is also thought to have translated some Books of the Old Testament because some verses from the Book of Isaiah translated according to the style of Lucian the martyr were found in Polycarp’s transla- tion. 67 He, Polycarp, may have been the first to translate the Epistles of St. Paul into Syriac, if we take into consider- ation the statement of Moses bar Kifa that these Epistles were translated into Syriac four hundred and thirty-six years after the martyrdom of the Apostle, that is, in 503. Baumstark is of the opinion that the oldest Syriac translations of the Book of Revelation also date back to that time. This opinion may be true regarding the Paris Polycarp manuscript and the four minor Epistles. 58 The Orientalists, however, are not unanimous in attributing one of these two translations to Polycarp. This Philoxenian translation has become rare be- cause it was overshadowed by the Heraclean transla- tion. The copies of the Gospel in the libraries of Flo- rence, 69 Rome, 70 and New York 71 are thought to contain this translation. A copy of the Acts of the Apostles is to be found at the Cambridge Library. The translation of the Epistles of St. Paul was made by the effort and care of Philoxenus in the year 508. This translation was later revised by the Heraclean (Thomas of Heraclea) in the year 616. The Orientalist Lebon thinks that a copy of the Polycarp or Philoxenian’s translation has not been found yet. 34. Stephen bar Sudayli (510) Stephen was bom al Edessa in the second half of the fifth century. He entered a monastic order and led a good life at the beginning of his career. While still young he journeyed to Egypt and adhered to a man named John, who indoctrinated him with the doctrine of pantheism, which purports that the One God is in the whole of created things. He publicized this doctrine in Edessa and because of itwas expelled from that city. He went to Jerusalem, where he found Origenian monks from his persuasion. He proceeded to correspond with his disciples in Edessa. In those days, about the year 5 10, Mar Philoxenus of Mabug wrote to Ibrahim (Abraham) and Orestes, presbyters of Edessa, concerning him. In his letters to these presbyters, Philoxenus mentioned that Stephen made mystical commentaries on the To- rah and the Psalms, and that after declaring perpetual punishment in Hell as false, he forsook this belief to adopt sheer pantheism, declaring that every nature is co-substantial with the Divine Person and Divine Es- sence. He continued that the errors of this atheist and his platitudes found no approval with anybody and that he was excommunicated by the Church. In his reply to the fifth question of the deacon Yeshu al-Tirminazi, Patriarch Cyriacus wrote that “the book ascribed to Hierotheos 72 the teacher of Dionysius the Areopagite is not his (Stephen’s). Some think that it was written by Bar Sudayli the heretic.” However, Chabot and other Orientalists do not hold this opinion. 75 35. The Deacon Simon the Potter (514) Simon was a magnificent church poet. He was bom at the village of Kishir in the province of Antioch. He took the making of pottery as a craft and hence became well known as “the Potter” or “Quqai” in Syriac. While working on his wheel, Simon composed eloquent and elegant religious poetry sung in a beautiful melody which he called Quqai His poetry covered many sub- jects, such as the Nativity of our Lord, His Resurrection and His miracles; Christ on the Cross, Prophets, The Virgin Mary, the Saints, the dead and repentance. Around the year 510, Mar Jacob the Doctor (Jacob of Saruj) heard of him while on some of his journeys and went to see him. He heard him singing these fine songs in his shop. He praised him and encouraged him to continue composing. Also he took copies of these songs. It is said that in 514 he showed these poems to the Patriarch Severus after he translated parts of them into Greek, which made the patriarch urge the poet to compose more poems of this nature. Simon also composed songs on the Nativity of the Lord in other melodies, ofwhich twenty-eightlines only came down to us. 74 Simon had pious, learned and well- mannered companions of his type who, shared with him the composition of songs. These companions were called the Quqaye, 75 whose poems have entered the Church’s rituals and choral books. Jacob of Edessa, from whom we copied most of this biography, said, “the shop of Simon and his wheel are still known in the village of Kishir until this day” (that is from 700 to 708) . 36. John Rufus the Antiochian, bishop of Mayoma (515?) John Rufus from the Rufina Family was born at Asqalan. He studied jurisprudence at the school of Beirut. He corresponded with the Patriarch Peter the Fuller, who ordained him a priest. He was known as the 85 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences “Antiochian.” He kept the company of Peter the Ibe- rian, entered a monastic order and succeeded Peter to the bishopric of Mayoma in Palestine. Around 515, he wrote chronicles and narratives in the Greek language, eighty in number, which he called Plephoriae 76 in refuta- tion of the Council of Chalcedon. These chronicles, however, contain a great deal of unsubstantiated infor- mation which does not withstand criticism. They were translated in a firm style, abridged and incorporated by Michael the Great in his History. They were also trans- lated into French and published by Nau in 191 1 , 77 John is also thought to be the author of the biography of his predecessor, Peter The Iberian, the style is interesting and contains profitable historical and geographical information. It was translated into German and pub- lished by Raabe. 37. The History ascribed to the Priest Joshua the Stylite (515?) About 515, a brilliant Edessene writer thought to be an instructor at a School in Edessa, 78 wrote a history in eighty-three pages, containing the calamities and events which took place in Edessa, Amid and Mesopotamia. He opened this history by a reply in seven pages addressed to Sergius the abbot who suggested he write this history. Also, he wrote an elaborate introductory chapter in ten and a half pages, in which he mentioned the reasons for wars between the Persian and the Roman states from 363 to 498. He also wrote about the events from 495 to the end of 506, most important of which is the fierce war between Qabadh the Persian king and the Caesar (em- peror) Anastasius (502-506) , dwelling, of course, on the happenings and events in his time. 79 This history is the most complete and trustworthy historical documents of those events. The author also mentioned that he found some of the information which he compiled in ancient books, whereas he copied the rest from the ambassa- dors of the Persian and Roman sovereigns. This history has a unique copy in the Vatican MS. 162, dated 932, which, because it is anonymous, has been ascribed by Assemani, who published its abridgement, 80 and the majority of the Orientalists, to the presbyter Joshua the Stylite, a monk of the Monastery of Zuqnin, 81 in Amid, on the grounds that the name of this author was men- tioned at the end of the letter by Elishah, a monk from the said monastery. 82 The opinions of writers differ regarding this history. Some writers ascribed it without evidence tojoshua the Stylite, while others ascribed it to an anonymous Edessene professor or monk, as is prob- ably the case. Writers also disagree on the belief of the author, who was most likely, a moderate Orthodox. 83 Alhough he had praised Flavian II of Antioch, he likewise praised Caesar (emperor) Anastasius, Philoxenus of Mabug, Jacob of Saruj and others. 84 The text of this history was first translated into French and published by Paul Martin in 1876. Itwas then translated into English and published by William Wright in 1882 followed by Chabot who translated it into Latin and published in 1927 the first volume, pp. 235-317, of the history erroneously ascribed to Dionysius. 38. The Doctor Mar Jacob of Saruj (d. 521 ) Jacob of Saruj is a proficient and a natural poet of great genius who is unrivaled and unequaled. An unre- strained writer and one of the princes of language, Jacob wrote with eloquence and creativeness. He is more of a poet than a writer. His poems attained wide popularity and spread everywhere. His poetry finds its way directly to the heart and amuses those who listen to it One never reads one of his poems without becoming infatuated by it. Jacob’s poetry contains masterpieces and beauties which astound the mind and arrest the heart It is also characterized by immaculate style and perspicuity, exquisite themes, masterful expression, and firm and clear form. Jacob is a prolific poet who composed lengthy poems, some of which contain two thousand, three thousand or more lines of poetry. Besides his composing introductory verses and magnifi- cent endings, he is at home with poetry. The more he penetrates his poetical theme, the more he enriches it with eloquence and beauty, and the more he creates new terms, delicate expressions, and brilliant tech- niques, which drive away boredom and alert the reader that he is opposite a mighty ocean full of literary pearls and uncommon objects. Read his maymars on exhortation and renunciation of world pleasures and repentance; you will find that before you have finished reading that your heart has renounced earthly things and that it has become filled with the love of piety and devotion. No matter how far you are from righteousness, his maymars will incline your heart to knock at God’s door and to adhere to God. How excellent he is in fathoming the diseases of the soul and in their proper treatment and how smooth is his style if it met attentive hearts and meek souls. Thus, his tongue was a spring of wisdom, and he himself was one of the chosen of God and the most famous of the saints of his time, the age of faith, heroism and Orthodox religious principles. May God bless an age which pro- duced distinguished men like Philoxenus of Mabug, Paul of Callinicus.John of Talla, Zacharaiah ofMitylene, John bar Aphtonia, Severus of Antioch and their like - unequaled authorities who are seldom found in any age. Therefore, the Church has done an excellent thing by naming him the “Doctor” par excellence as well as the “Cithara of the Holy Spirit,” the “Harp of the Orthodox Church,” and the “Crown of the Doctors, their ornament and their pride.” MarJacob was bom at the village of Qawartum on the Euphrates, but he is also said to have been born at Hawrah in the district of the city of Saruj in 551. He graduated from the School of Edessa, where he had acquired a great share of the sciences of philology, philosophy and theology. He became a monk and an 86 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences ascetic. When he was twenty years old he extemporized his famous ode, The Chariot of Ezekiel, in the presence of five bishops who had suggested it to him at the church of Batnan Saruj (according to another weak source, at the church of Nisibin). 85 The bishops admired his poetical talent and licensed him, trusting that God has distinguished him with His favor. He was ordained a presbyter and then granted the rank of a Periodeutes for the city of Hawrah, after which he journeyed through the lands of the Euphrates and inner Syria, carrying out his task properly. He was well received, loved and trusted by hundreds, nay, thou- sands of monks for his piety, honesty and knowledge. At the end of his life he was made a bishop of the diocese of Batnan Saruj in 519, and administered his diocese most appropriately for one year and eleven mon ths. He died on November 29, 521 , being seventy years of age. He is commemorated by the Church. A long time later, some of his remains were removed to a private shrine in the city of Diyarbakr. Certain men studied under Doctor Jacob and ben- efited from him. Of these is his secretary Habib of Edessa and an ascetic named Daniel. According to Bar Hebraeus seventy copyists were assigned to write down his poems, which had been collected and totaled seven hundred seventy poems, first of which was The Chariot of Ezekiel and the last, Golgotha, left unfinished because of his death. All of these poems are composed in the dodecasyllabic meter which he invented and which came to be known in his name as the Sarujite meter. These maymars (poems) covered commentaries on the most important subjects of the Old and New Testa- ments. They also treated subjects such as faith, virtue, penance, resurrection, graces for meals, the dead, and praise of the Virgin, the Prophets, the Apostles and the martyrs. He made specific mention of the saints Peter, Paul, Thomas, Thaddeus, John the Babtist, Guriyya, Shamuna and Habib, Sergius and Bacchus, the People of the Cave, George, the martyrs of Sebaste, Ephraim, Simon the Stylite. In the mornings and evenings, the Syrian church chants a group of his choice maymars in praise of the Lord of the Universe, thus perpetuating the memory of their author. Our libraries at the Zafaran, Jerusalem (St. Mark), Mardin as well as the libraries of the Vatican and London, British Museum, contain more than four hun- dred of these maymars most of which are written on parchment 86 And if you realize that the monk Paul Bedjan published two hundred maymars in five thick volumes, you would estimate that their total number comprises nineteen volumes. Seventy-seven of these maymars had been selected and added to the collection of the homilies for the whole year in a manuscript which I found at Basibrina, which is different from familiar collections. We have also read madrashes by him in the meter “God who asscended on Mount Sinai,” (of which the first is on the Saints) and two sughithson penitence. 87 Some copies 88 ascribed to him a philosophical, alpha- betically arranged sughith of twenty-two lines in the melody of “Lord make me drink from thy spring,” which, according to Mingana, belonged to Jacob of Edessa. 89 He also composed songs on the pestilences of locusts which befell the country in the spring of 500 A.D. 90 As to his prose writings they consist of letters of the utmost beauty and elegance. They are written in a masterful, and exquisite style. A selected collection in 316 pages containing forty-three of these letters has survived, they were published in 1937 after three British Museum MSS. of which the oldest and the largest was finished in 603. 91 These letters are: 1 . A letter to Stephen bar Sudayli the heretic (before adopting heresy) refuting his delusions and advising him to improve his conduct by resorting to piety. (This letter followed an earlier one which he wrote to him guiding and calling him to the right path; later, he excommunicated him in a synod which comprised some bishops); 92 2) a letter on faith; 3) a letter to the priest Thomas on faith; 4) a letter to Antonius, bishop of Aleppo; 5) a letter to the priestjohn; 6) a letter to the monks at Arzun, the citadel of the Persians; 7) a letter to the monks of Mount Sinai; 8) to Mar Habib, a letter of peace on the resurrection; 9) a letter to Julian the Archdeacon; 10) a letter to Stephen the Notary on the salvation works of Christ; 11) a letter to the Ascetic Paul; 12) an (imperfect) letter; 13) a letter to the monks of the convent of Mar Basuson the works of Christ; 14) an entreating letter to the monks of the Monastery of Mar Basus; 15) a letter from the monks of Mar Basus to him; 1 6) his reply to them; 1 7) a third letter to them which is unique as well as decisive evidence of his adherence to the Orthodox faith; 95 18) a letter to the Himyarite confessors in Najran; 19) a letter on faith to Samuel, abbot of the Monastery of St. Isaac atGabula;20) a letter to the citizens of Edessa, reminding them of the prom- ise of Christ to King Abgar; 21) a letter to the abbots Antiochus, Samuel, John, Sergius and Ignatius on the Nativity of the Lord; 22) a letter tojacob the abbotof the Monastery of Nawawis; 23) a thirty-six page letter to Marun in reply to six Biblical problems which Marun submitted to him in a language other than Syriac; 24) a letter on the saying of Our Lord “And whosoever speaketh a word agains the Son of man, it shall be forgiven him, but whosoever speaketh against the Holy Ghost it shall not be forgiven him,” 94 25) a letter to some of his friends; 26) a consolatory letter to Mara, bishop of Amid; 27) a letter to the ascetic Daniel concerning his unwillingness to serve as a priest; 28) a letter on the contrition of the Soul; 29-30) a letter to some of his friends; 31) a letter to a friend on the Great Saturday; 32) a letter to Paul, bishop of Edessa, on the verse: “Love thine enemies;” 95 33) a letter to Eutychianus, bishop of Dara, on faith; 34) a letter to Simi consoling him for the death of his son; 35) a letter to Basaconte (prince) of 87 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences Edessa; 36) a letter to the Comes (Count) Cyrus, the chief physician, on the interpretation of the true Faith; 37) a letter to the two harlots Leontia and Maria who repented and became recluses; 38) a letter to a solitary who used to see specters and visions of demons openly; 39) a letter to Daniel the Solitary; 40) a letter to some ascetics; 41 ) a letter to his friend Simon; 42) a letter on virtuous life to a poor man seeking the salvation of his soul; 43) a letter to one of his friends. We have also read aletterbyhim, notmentioned in his anthology, to some of his friends beginning thus: “Had not the distur- bances of this wicked world troubled thee.” We also read some discourses by him. 96 The author of the chronicle ascribed to Joshua the Stylite related on page 280 that “During the panic which seized the people as a result of the Persian-Byzantine War in 503 A.D., the inhabitants of the countries lying to the east of the Euphrates began a mass migration.” Jacob wrote, advising them to remain in their home- land, and encouraging them with the hope that they would find safety by Providence. No one of these letters survived except the twentieth letter, which he delivered to the people of Edessa. We have also found eleven festal homilies written by him for the Nativity of Our Lord, the Epiphany, the Presentation of Our Lord in the Temple, Lent, for the Thursday preceding Palm Sunday, for Palm Sunday, for Good Friday, for the Sunday of Unleavened Bread, for Easter Sunday and for Low Sunday. The latter begins thus: “An intense joy full of understanding urges me today.” Another discourse on repentance begins thus: “We should not grieve because the thread of our life has reached its end and that from day to day it is about to be cut off.” 97 Also he wrote consolatory discourses and two liturgies: the first in 519, beginning thus: “O God creator of everything visible and invisible,” in 24 pages, 98 and the second beginning thus: “O blessed and compas- sionate God, whose name is from time of old.” 99 A twenty-one page copy is in our library, beginning thus: “O God the Father, thou art the peace which has no limit” He also composed the prayer of peace which is recited during the celebration of the Eucharist on Christmas festival, and some prose hymns (shubahe) 100 for receiving the Holy Eucharist, an order for Baptism 1 01 and the biographies of the two ascetics Daniel ofjalsh and Hannina. 102 Bar Hebraeus stated that, “He also has commentaries, letters, madrashes and sughiths, im and that he wrote a commentary on the six hundred Apho- risms of Euagrius, at the request of his disciple, Mar George, bishop of the Arabs.” As this George died in 725 A.D., the commentary, therefore, either belongs to Jacob of Edessa, or the statement of Bar Hebraeus was added by some scribe. However, this book has been lost. In 1095, the most learned man of his time, Said bar Sabuni, metropolitan of Melitene, composed a unique ode in praise of the qualities and writings of this emi- nent Doctor. 104 39. Habib of Edessa Deacon Habib of Edessa was an associate of Jacob of Saruj under whom he studied, served as a scribe and from whom he learned the art of composing poetry. 105 But no established poem has been ascribed to him. However, a poem beginning thus was ascribed tojacob of Saruj: “OJesus the light whose brightness riseth in all of the countries,” 106 which was erroneously attributed by later writers to George his disciple. Moreover, it has not been mentioned in an authenticated manuscript 107 We have read a more precise text of this ode beginning thus: “OJesus the light whose appearance has delighted all the countries,” which is either anonymous or was composed by some aliens. 108 The Jerusalem copy con- tains a marginal note by the monk Sergius of Hah in 1483, stating that it is the composition of John bar Shushan. He may be right, because some of its lines contain what would deny its attribution to Habib, espe- cially his saying: “Liftupyour mind, Oman, to those first as to those in the middle.” Critics disagree about this Sergius. Some believe him to be George, bishop of Saruj while others think he was bishop of Hawrah who was ordained in 698 and to whom Jacob of Edessa addressed his famous letter on Syriac orthorgraphy. 40. Mar Philoxenus of Mabug (d. 523) Philoxenus was a master of eloquence and a distin- guished philologist. An outstanding person in intelli- gence, knowledge and deeds, he was also abstinent and God-fearing. His style was stately and lucid. He master- fully portrayed good manners and sublime Christian virtues, producing a book on the perfect fife which contains much benefits and is written in an infinitely beautiful style. Philoxenus thoroughly studied the origin of reli- gion. Read his book on The Trinity and the Incarnation, and you will find this master well-versed in theological matters and fathoming their depths. Read his letters and you will know what an ambitious soul and magnani- mous heart he had. He was an indefatigable contestant whose challengers, always defeated, retaliated by dispraising him. Moreover, he was patient in enduring ordeals and hardships for the cause of the Orthodox faith until he won the crown preserved for those who struggle for the faith and the wreath of confessors. Philoxenus was born atTahlin Beth Garmai (in Iraq) shordy before the middle of the fifth century. His Syriac name, Akhsnaya (Stranger) was changed upon his ordi- nation as a bishop, into the Greek name Philoxenus (Lover of Strangers) . While young, his parents took him to Tur Abdin, where he entered the Monastery of Qartamin with his brother Addai to study Syriac and Greek literatures and the science of religion. Later, he transferred to the School of Edessa and finished his philosophical and theological studies. But it was at the great Monastery of Talada in the province of Antioch 88 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences that he finished his studies of Greek and Syriac. Then he became a monk and was ordained a priest. In 485, he was ordained by Patriarch of Antioch, Peter II, a chorepiscopus and then bishop of Mabug. Philoxenus made utmost efforts to defend the true belief of the Orthodox Church. He participated in the doctrinal disputes ofhis time and ardently opposed the Nestorians and the Chalcedonians, who were angered by his inten- sive defense. This situation caused their extremists to antagonize him, while some of them even vilified him with slanderous remarks, showing that they were full of spite, foolish talk and erroneous views. But he refuted all of them. 109 In 499, he went to Constantinople to complain to the emperor against Flavian II of Antioch who was wavering in his faith, but the Persian Wars with the Byzantines prevented the investigation of the case. When peace was established, he revisited the capital and was able to have Flavian deposed and Severus of Antioch installed in his place in 5 1 2. However, Justin, who succeeded Anastasius, exiled the Orthodox bishops in the Fall of 518. Philoxenus was then banished to Philippopolis in Thrace and later to Gangara in Paphlagonia. At Gangara, he wasjailed in a house with its openings blocked and a fire burning inside. He died suffocating from smoke, as a martyr for his faith, on December 10, 523, in the eighth decade ofhis life after he had been a bishop for thirty- eight years. He is commemorated by the Church. The writings of this most learned church dignitary include commentaries on theological, polemical, liter- ary, ascetic and ritualistic subjects. They also contain letters and discourses. 1 . It is stated in his lengthy biography that he wrote an elaborate commentary on both Testaments, which was quoted by Bar Salibi. An old British Museum MS., transcribed at Mabug in 511 during the author’s life- time, contains portions of the commentary on the Gospels according to St. Matthew, St. Luke and St. John. 110 Other copies, however, contain selections from the gospels, a commentary on the parable of the ten talents, and a discourse on faith, a commentary on the words of Peter, “Jesus of Nazareth, a man approved of God.” 111 His commentary on the Gospel of St. Matthew was cited as a testimony by Iyawanmis (J ohn) of Dara in part five ofhis book Paradise, and by Moses bar Kifa in his book On the Creation of Angels. Also, he has a discourse based on the words which the Aposde Paul quoted from the books of philosophers and an anonymous writingas well. 2. In theology he has two works, the first of which comprises three discourses on the Trinity and the Incar- nation. It was translated into Latin and published by Vaschalde in 1908. The second is on “the Incarnation and Suffering ofonePerson of the Trinity,” in which he cited the Greek writings of some church scholars before they were translated into Syriac. This translation testi- fies to his knowledge of Greek, contrary to the opinion of some Orientalists, He also wrote ten discourses, two of which were translated into Latin and published in 1920. There are two old copies of these two works written on vellum. 112 Furthermore, he wrote four Con- fessions of Faith, one of which begins thus, “We believe in the Trinity of one eternal nature,” 115 ten chapters against the decision of the Council of Chalcedon, 114 seven chapters against those who advocate the necessity of condemning only the invalid part of the teachings of heretics while not condemning them completely or their writings in their entirety. 115 He also wrote a dis- course on the unity of the two natures of Christ, and one on the man who violates excommunication by the priests ofhis own will. A third discourse, in two pages, is entitled “If a man is asked how he believes, he should answer thus,” and a fourth discourse is on the unity of the body of Christ. 3. The polemical writings. Philoxenus’ 116 biographer states that he wrote six treatises against the Nestorians and thirteen more against the Chalcedonians. Of the first, only two treatises remain, the first in twenty chap- ters and the second in five chapters: a disputation with one of the Nestorian writers and a discourse declaring the Nestorians’ teaching as well as that of the Eutychians as false. Of the second there remain two treatises, one in twelve chapters and the other in ten chapters, and another discourse in seven chapters being against both the Nestorians and the Eutychians. He also wrote a treatise containing his belief and a refutation of her- esies, and another treatise in which he distinguished between the heresies of Mani, Marcion, Eutyches, Deodorus and Nestorius. In addition, he wrote three chapters in refutation of heresies. Seven of these trea- tises in forty-one pages were published by Budge. 117 He has also a treatise against Habib al-Attar (druggist). 4. His valuable book on the perfect Christian life in thirteen treatises, covering five hundred pages in one volume is considered the best ofhis writings. He wrote it shortly after becoming a bishop and adorned it with the eloquence and precious counsels. In this work he discussed the method of becoming a disciple of Christ. Its contents include the following: faith, simplicity, humility, (voluntary) poverty, asceticism, worship of God, and resistance of some vices, such as gluttony, lusts of the body and debauchery. This book was translated into English and published by Budge in two elegant volumes in 1894. 118 He also wrote discourses on monastic regulations, the fear of God, on humility, on repentance, on prayer, on how to remedy the whims of the soul, on virginity, on tonsure, on a discussion with the brethren monks, on tranquility of worship, on the monastery, organization and on aphorism. 119 5. As to rites, he wrote two liturgies, the first in twenty pages beginning thus: “O Lord God Almighty, who is beyond perception and the Compassionate whom the minds cannot comprehend.” The second begins: “O 89 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences Lord God Almighty and Holy, whose peace is beyond the comprehension of all minds.” Furthermore, a third liturgy is ascribed to him. 120 He has also drawn an extremely short order for the Baptism of dying in- fants, 121 a manith (hymn) on the Nativity of Our Lord and supplicatory prayers among which are a prayer to be recited on rising from bed and another one begin- ning, “O Lord thou are a true God and Lord,” a suppli- cation to be recited privately by the person. He also wrote a prayer for the seven canonical hours, and prayers for the morning, the third hour and vespers as well as two prayers to be recited before and after the reception of Communion and a prayer on contrition. 122 6. Philoxenus wrote splendid and elaborate letters containing many profitable lessons in theology, history and asceticism. According to his biographer, these letters fall into twenty-two parts. However, only twenty- one of these letters survive in European libraries. To these we added other letters which we found in the libraries of the East. These letters are: 1) A thirty-six page letter to Patricius, the ascetic, of Edessa on the keeping of the commandments of God and resisting the whims of the soul; 123 2) a letter to the Emperor Zeno on the Incarnation of God, the Word and His becoming a man (in which he declared the excommunication of Nestorius and Eutyches); 124 3) a letter to the Christians of Arzun on the Mystery of the Incarnation; 4) a letter to a monk who had recently renounced the world; 125 5) a letter to Ibrahim and Orestes the presbyters of Edessa concerning Stephen bar Sudayli the heretic ascetic; 126 6-7) two letters to the monks of the Monastery of Gugel (the Mountain of Bagugel in Tur Abdin) on the Passion of the Lord Christ (The first, covering ten pages, begins thus: “Christ has manifested the light of Salvation;” the sec- ond, covering thirty-five pages, begins thus: “To the noble monasteries,” in which he praised the monks’ replies and told them that they were well-received by the Emperor Anastasius); 127 8) a letter to the monks on heretics; 9) a fifty-four page letter to one of his friends (who was an ascetic in the wilderness) on the beginning of man’s asceticism in this world, his obedience in the monastery, 128 his residence in a cell and his practice of tranquility. In this letter, he divided the ways of asceti- cism into four stages; 10) a letter entitled “To the Monasteries of Amid,” 129 addressed to these monks on zeal for faith; 11-12) two letters to the monks ofTalada, the first of which he wrote in his exile. In the second he refuted the allegations of his opponents as well as the opponents of truth, praising Acacius the presbyter and abbot of the Monastery ofTalada for his good fight; 150 13) a letter to the monks of the Monastery of Senun in Edessa concerning the Incarnation of the only Word of God, in which he included an account of Nestorius. He wrote this letter during his exile at Philippopolis; 151 14) an elaborate letter in thirty-three large-size pages which he wrote at Philippopolis addressed to the monks and abbots of the East, in which he described his calamity as well as the courses the church followed in bygone time to establish peace; 152 15-16) two letters to Simon, the abbot of the great Monastery of Talada, the first on church policy, and the second in fourteen pages written at Philippopolis against those who falsely claim that the Church lost the gift of the Holy Spirit after the Council of Chalcedon. This letter (in fourteen pages) begins thus, “I have a desire and plea;” 155 17) an exhortatory letter to a convert from Judaism who attained the highest degree of perfection; 154 18) a letter to Marun the lector of Ayn Zarba; 155 19) letters to the inhabitants of Arzun and the faithful in Persia; 20) a letter tojohn, metropolitan of Amid, reminding him of their friend- ship when they were students at the Monastery of Qartamin; 156 21) a letter to a disciple of his; 157 22) aletter on the beginning of asceticism in the world; 158 23) a letter to a lawyer who practiced asceticism and was tempted by Satan; 159 24) a letter to the Himyarite Chris- tians during the adversity inflicted upon them by Masruq thejewish king because of their Christianity; 25) a letter to Count Thales, who asked him about the theory of the Tree of Life. This letter was much quoted by John of Dara in part five of the book of Paradis d 40 and also by Moses bar Kifa; 26) a letter of thanks which he wrote at Gangara to the monk Bar Niqina, the doer of miracles, of the Monastery of Mar Hanania. This letter was men- tioned by the historian Zachariah; 141 27) a letter to Abu Hafar (or Afar), 142 the military governor of Hirat al- Numan, on the history of heresies, particularly Nestorianism, beginning from Sabelius and up to Nestorius and Eutyches. I found portions of this letter in three British Museum MSS., 145 and another portion at our patriarchate library in Hims. To this letter has been connected an account of the Christian Turks written by an anonymous author who has quoted the narrative of Lazarus, the Armenian bishop of Herat and of two Armenians, a priest and a merchant who had come to Antioch and related this news; 144 28) a letter to those ascetics who confined themselves to worship; 145 29) a letter in reply tojohn II of Alexandria. 146 7. His homilies. His biography mentions that he composed homilies in five volumes for principal feasts and on the acts of Our Lord. According to Bar Hebraeus, “he also wrote homilies for festivals and other diverse homilies,” 147 most of which were lost. However, those homilies known to us are: two homilies on the Annun- ciation of the Virgin and on the Nativity of Our Lord 148 ; a homily on the Son of Life, which was cited by Moses bar Kifa in his treatise on the Soul; a homily on a person who asked him whether the Holy Spirit departs from a man when he sins, and returns to him when he re- pents; 149 a homily on the death of a brother 150 and a paraenetic discourse. 151 41. The Ascetic Barlaha The priest ascetic Barlaha was a recluse in the cell of 90 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences Elisha the Ascetic called the Monastery of the Chariot He was known for being one of the translators of the Septuagint made in the sixth century and of large portions which survived. It is related that upon his request. Abbot Simon (who will be discussed below) translated the Psalms from Greek into Syriac. 42. Simon, abbot of the Monastery of Beth Liqin Simon was abbot of the Monastery of the Virgin known as Beth Licinius in the Black Mountain. He was well-versed in Greek and Syriac. It is evident from his reply to Barlaha that he proceeded to translate the Psalms with much effort This translation turned out to be different from the translations familiar to the Syr- ians, particularly those which correspond with the com- mentary of Basilius the Great on the first Psalm. He also mentioned the book of Eusebius in the contents of each psalm. 152 Moreover, he incorporated into his transla- tion chapters on the Psalms written by Didymus, Origen and Athanasius. This is the collection of Psalms which the Syriac translation of the Septuagint contains. You will find the letter of Barlaha and the reply of Simon in the Vatican MS. 135. It is also said that he wrote a short commentary on some of the psalms. Both Barlaha and Simon were still living in the first quarter of the sixth century. 155 43. Paul, bishop of al-Raqqa (528 A.D.) Paul was an eminent scholar who acquired great knowledge of both Syriac and Greek literatures. He became a bishop of al-Raqqa in the first decade of the sixth century. But in 519 he was caught by the Caesarian persecution for his belief, as a result of which he moved to Edessa. He labored in translating into Syriac the writings of Severus of Antioch, which are Severus corre- spondence with Julian of Halicarnassus the Phantasiast on the incorruptibility of the body of Christ, 154 a dis- course against him and against his addition (Appendi- ces) 155 as well as a refutation of Julian’s protest, 156 pre- ceded by an introduction in which he indicated that he had translated itwith much difficulty. He also translated Severus’ treatise against the Manicheans and his book entitled Philalethes (Lover of Truth). Evidently, he also translated the one hundred twenty-fifth homily of Severus, which he delivered from the pulpit, 157 his correspondence with Sergius Grammaticus, and his treatise against John Grammaticus, in two volumes, which he finished in April, 528. 158 Mar Paul rendered great services to the Syrian church and its literature by translating these magnificentworks, for which he won the sobriquet of “The Translator of Books. ” He also composed a manith for the con secra tion of Chrism. We do not know the year of his death. 44. Mara, metropolitan of Amid (d. 529) A descendant of a noble family and the son of governor Constant, he was born at Amid and raised in the best manner in the bosom of prosperity. His educa- tion was in both Greek as well as in his own tongue, Syriac. Later he became a monk in the Monastery of St Thomas of Seleucia, where the news of his virtuous life and fasting spread widely. He became the steward of the church. During the persecution, 159 and while the patri- arch of Antioch was in exile, Mara was ordained a bishop by the laying of the hands of the Bishops of Miyafarqin, Agel and Samosata around 520. He was congratulated byjacob of Saruj for his elevation to the bishopric. After a short time, he was banished for his Orthodox faith, by the Emperor Justin, to Petra, the ancient capital of the Nabateans. With him was also banished Isidore, bishop of Qinnesrin. He was accom- panied in his exile by his virtuous sisters Shamuni and Martha, who had brought him up in the way of virtue, and who encouraged him to endure this ordeal. He was also accompanied by his secretaries, the deacon Stephen, a man of eloquence, Thomas the ascetic, the deacon Zota and Sergius. Later, he was transferred to Alexan- dria through the effort of the Princess Theodora, around 524, where he lived in commendable patience while utilizing his time by reading and study. Furthermore, he established a library which contained many valuable books and profitable sources ofinformation for diligent lovers of knowledge. After spending eightyears in exile, he died around 529, and his remains were carried by his two sisters and disciples to his homeland and buried in the church of Mar Shila, which he had built They also carried his library to the church of Amid. His biography was written by John of Ephesus. 160 Mara wrote many books in Greek. Zachariah, bishop of Mitylene, quoted part of his commentary on chapter eight of the Gospel of St.John which has not yet been translated into Syriac. He also quoted a chapter from his commentary on the Gospels and another one from the acts of Christ. 161 45. Sergius of Ras Ayn (d. 536) Sergius of Ras Ayn was a philosopher and a man of profound knowledge. He was also an efficient writer who had great command of language. He was a priest from a Syrian stock and the chief physician of Ras Ayn (Theodosiopolis) in the Jazira where he was probably bom. He became famous for his eloquence. He studied sciences at Alexandria and both the Greek and Syriac sciences. His noble writings testify that he studied the philosophical and medical sciences extensively. Al- though he was an Orthodox, yet he avoided the theo- logical disputes of his time and sometimes vacillated in his religious doctrine. T o Th eodor e the N estorian bishop of Maru, he dedicated two of his works. In 535 he journeyed to Antioch to lodge a complaint before the Patriarch Ephraim of Amid against Asylus, bishop ofRas Ayn. Ephraim delegated him to go to Rome to invite Agape tus of Rome to come to Constantinople. He went and brought Agapetus back with him. Agapetus and 91 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences Ephraim collaborated against An thimus of Constan tinople and Severus of Antioch. During this time Sergius died at the Capital in the spring of 5.%, followed byAgapetus who died a few days later. 162 Most of our historians dispraise Sergius for his life and conduct. His known works are a discourse on Faith which he wrote about 485-488, but is now lost; fundamental treatises on logic in seven sections; a treatise on nega- tion and affirmation; a treatise on the causes of the universe, according to the principles of Aristotle; a treatise on genus, species, and individuality, which is imperfect; a book on De Simplicium Medicamentorum and a treatise on the purpose of the writings of Aristotle, both of which he dedicated to Theodore. This treatise, which covers two hundred ninety-four pages, was tran- scribed by the deacon Zeno, son of the priest Sulayman of the family of the priest Abu Salim in 1187 for the deacon and chief physician Abu al-Hasan. 16 ’ However, the most conspicuous of the works of Sergius are his translations from the Greek into Syriac, the most well- known of which are the Isagoge of Porphyry; the Catego- ries of Aristotle; the being of the world, and a treatise on the soul in five sections, 164 as well as a portion of the works of Galen comprising three books on the treatise entitled De Simplicum Medicamentorum Temperanenlis ae Facultatibus , 166 Itis, however, doubtful whether the trans- lation of the treatises on Geoponica or agriculture as- cribed to Galen belongs to him. 166 These works contain a great deal of useful philologi- cal and geographical information as well as many bo- tanical terms. Furthermore, the translation of the fa- mous philosophical and theological book ascribed to pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite on the divine names, the celestial hierarchy and the priesthood, which he prefaced with an eloquent introduction, indicate the influence of his (Dionysius) mystical teaching on him. 167 46. John of Talla (d. 538) John of Talla was one of the best church dignitaries regarding asceticism and worship, one of the greatest militants for the Orthodox faith and an authority on religious sciences and proofs. Born in 483 at al-Raqqa of a rich family and brought up in the best manner, he received an education in both Syriac and Greek litera- tures. Then he joined the army for a short period, but he became fond of asceticism which led him to enter the monastic life in 506 at the Monastery of Mar Zakka outside al-Raqqa, where he studied theology and reli- gious science. He was ordained a priest, and in 519 was elevated to the episcopate of Talla. 168 Two years later he was exiled by the Caesar Justin for his adherence to Orthodoxy, and found refuge in a place in the lands of the Jazira, but finally settled in Sinjar. 169 From every direction believers journeyed to Sinjar to hear the decisive truth from him, while he offered them his personal opinion and counsel. Because of the persecu- tion and exile of bishops, John ordained several thou- sands of clergymen for the visiting believers. 176 He remained thus for sixteen years, while maintaining the most austere ascetic life. He visited Persia three times and also journeyed to the capital, Constantinople, in 532-533 to defend doctrine. Later he returned to his solitude, until his opponents were finally able to arrest him through the Persian Magi, governor of Nisibin. In 537 Ephraim, the Malkite Patriarch of Amid held a council atRas Ayn in an attempt to induce him to accept his doctrine, but he failed. Therefore, he detained him through the cruel authority of the state in a monastery near the gate of Antioch and ill-treated him, but he endured his ordeal with patience until he died in February, 538, at the age offifty-five. He was considered a true Confessor of the Faith and was commemorated by the Church. 171 His lengthy biography was written by his disciple and companion, the monk Elijah, and was abridged by John of Asia. Both the original and the abridged biographies have been published. Among the writings of John of Talla are forty-eight canons, in five pages, compiled for the monks of his monastery. Some of these canons he incorporated into the book of Ecclesiastical Laws. A copy of these canons is preserved in the collection of old laws. 172 He also wrote twenty-seven canons, in ten pages, containing com- mandments and exhortations for the clergy. In some copies these canons are entided thus, Canons by John of Talla to be Observed by the Clergy, Especially the Priests of Villages? 7 * a forty-two question in ten pages, suggested to him by his disciple, the priest Sergius, and which he answered; 174 a letter in fifteen pages containing the confession of faith which he delivered to the monaster- ies, priests, deacons and monks of his diocese in the name of the abbots of the monasteries. It begins thus, “The Apostle Paul has laid down for us a spiritual foundation which the waves of heresy cannot shake;” 175 acommentaryon the Trisagionin two pages 1 76 and many other letters which the monk Elijah alluded to in his biography. 47. St. Severus of Antioch (d. 538) Severus was a great church dignitary, the luminary of scholars, the Crown of the Syrians, the pride of the Patriarchs of Antioch, an outs tanding authority and the unique erudite of his generation. He was also a great theologian, a profound and prolific writer and an elo- quent orator who had a great control of the pulpit. To him flocked eminent jurists and men of good conscience seeking solution to problems and interpre- tation of complex matters. What a man he was, a man who built up and upheld the edifice of religion, and supported and explained the authority of the Orthodox faith. He was pure in heart, soul and character, a possessor of the keys of wisdom and decisions. 177 Severus was born at Sozopolis in the province of Pisidia around the year 459 A.D. His grandfather (on his father’s side) was one of the bishops who attended 92 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences the Ecumenical Council of Ephesus (431 A.D.) . At Alexandria, he studied grammar and rhetoric in both Greek and Latin, and jurisprudence and philosophy at the school of Roman jurisprudence in Beirut. He was baptized at the church of Tripoli in 488. 178 Later he chose the way of asceticism and became monk in the Monastery of St Romanus in the city of Mayoma in Palestine and was ordained a priest by Bishop Epiphanius. Then, he built a monastery and remained there for twenty-four years, worshipping God and prac- ticing the virtues of asceticism and studying the Holy Bible and the writings of theologians. He began to write to support Orthodox doctrine and his fame spread. In 508, he journeyed with two hundred monks to Constantinople to defend the doctrine and remained there about three years until 5 1 1 . A year and a few more months later, Flavian II, patriarch of Antioch, was de- posed, and Severus was elected by the Holy Spirit to succeed him to the Apostolic See. He was consecrated a patriarch in Antioch on the 6th of November, 512, after which he opened the treasures of his knowledge in preaching and explaining the realities of faith and morals. During his leadership as a patriarch he never deviated from the path of his asceticism and abstinence. So, he removed luxurious living from the patriarchal palace, while devoting his energy to reform and the dispensation of church affairs by visiting the neighbor- ing dioceses and monasteries in person or by letter. When Justin I, the Chalcedonian, succeeded Anastasius in 518, he banished a group of our Orthodox bishops, antagonizing Severus who left for Egypt on the 25 th of September and remained there for twenty-four years. In Egypt, Severus administered the church through his deputies or his letters. With indefatigable energy, he wrote book after book against heresies and deceivers, answered letters and gave personal opinions on legal matters. When he faced a difficultproblem, he searched for light in the Holy Bible or turned to the resolutions of councils for assistance. In 535, he went to Constantinople in answer to the invitation of Justinian I, in pursuit of unity. At the capital, he won Anthimus, patriarch of Constantinople, to his side, but the gap between the two parties remained wide. Then he re- turned to Egypt where he died at the city of Sakha on the 8th of February, 538. He was crowned by the Church as the Great Doctor of the catholic Church. The Church also commemorates him on the day of his death. His life was written by four eloquent writers who are Zachariah Rhetor, John, abbot of the Monastery of Bar Aphtonya, Athanasius I, patriarch of Antioch, and an anonymous author. The writings of Severus cover polemics, rituals, com- mentaries, homilies, and letters. They enjoy the highest respect All of these writings are in Greek and have been translated into Syriac by Syrian scholars. Of the first, the polemical are: 1-2) Two treatises in refutation of Niphalius, the Alexandrian monk; 179 3) the book of Philalethes which he wrote in defense of the writing of Cyril of Alexandria and other writers, in which he showed that the oppo- nents of Orthodoxy falsified the opinions of the Doc- tors of the Church in three hundred thirty places in the writings of these Doctors; 4) a defense of the correct- nessofhisbookPAz7afet/ies; 180 5) a book in three volumes against the Malkite Bishop John Grammaticus of Caesarea, which he started writing at Antioch and fin- ished in Egypt; 181 6-7) two books in refutation ofjulian the Phantasiast, bishop of Halicarnassus; 182 8) a treatise against Sergius Grammaticus the Eutychian; 185 9) a treatise against the Malkite priest John of Scythopolis; 10) a treatise against Philixismus in two parts; 184 11) a treatise against the Manicheans; 185 12) a treatise against the covenant of Lamphytius, containing the heresy of the worshippers; 186 13) a treatise against Alexander, part of which was published by Brooks at the end of volume four of the letters of Severus; 187 14) a letter to the patrician s Paul and Aphiun against the heresy ofEutyches and also a dialogue for Anstas. Of the second (ritual writings) there is a magnificent book containing the maniths, splendid anthems or hymns which he composed. The maniths begin with a verse from the Holy Bible and continue with an elegant style which inspires awe and the love of God. These maniths number two hundred and ninety-five and are as follows: Twenty homilies; fourteen hymns on the Nativity of Our Lord and on martyrs; thirteen hymns on the Epiphany, on the miracles of Our Lord and for Holy Sunday; nine hymns on Lentand on the baptized; eight hymns on the dead; seven hymns on the Palm festival, Pentecost, pestilences and compline; six hymns on the Mother of God and on earthquakes; five hymns on the Passion of Our Lord, the Resurrection and the Forty martyrs; four hymns for the funerals of the clergy and monks and for children. There are also three hymns on each one of the following: Judas, the Passion of Our Lord, the Holy Cross, John the Baptist, chanting after the reading of the Gospel, the death of rain and the Persian War. In addition, there are two hymns to be recited before the reading of the gospel on Sunday night and the other days of the week, on the entrance into the Baptistery, the children of Bethlehem (Massa- cre of the Innocent) , on the martyrs Stephen, Romanus, Babylas, Sergius and Bacchus, the Maccabees, Drasis and on the saints Basil, Gregory, Ignatius and Chrysostom, on the Church, on the invasion of the Huns, on condemning lewd spectacles and dancing, on eulogizing his scribe Peter and on the funeral for children. Also, he wrote one hymn on each of the Chrisms, the wife of Pilate, the Good Thief, Mid-Pente- cost, the Twelve Apostles, the Aposde Paul, the Evange- lists Mark and John, the Evangelist John, the Apostle Thomas, the prophets, Zachariah the prophet, Job, and the martyrs Leontius, Sergius, Mina, Simon the Stylite, Anba Antonius, the Coptic martyrs, the Persian martyrs 93 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences Juventinus, Longinus and Maximus (who became mar- tyrs under Julian the Apostate). 188 Other hymns were also devoted to the Himyarite martyrs, the martyrs Theda, Euphimea and Pelagia and all of the bishops as well as Ignatius, Peter of Alexandria, Gregory Thanmaturgus, Athanasius the Great, Basil, Gregory and Parphyry of Antioch, Cyril of Alexandria, the Em- peror Theodosius the Less, the Caesars (emperors) Constantine, Honorius, Gratian and Theodosius the Great and the one hundred and fifty Church Fathers. Besides these, there is one hymn apiece on the graves of strangers, on Easter Sunday, chanted before the recep- tion of the Holy Communion, on Ascension and Pente- cost, on martyrs, a hymn to be chanted during the reception of the Communion, on the Nativity of Our Lord, on the baptized, on the Ascension, on the Virgin Mary, on the martyrs and on the commemoration of the bishops, on Sundays after the celebration of the Eucha- rist and before the bishops leave for the diocesan home. Finally, he wrote a hymn each for after the Epiphany; on giving thanks after the falling of rain; on the Brumalia; concerning the monks when he (Severus) returned from visiting the monasteries; on the ninetieth Psalm; on the funerals of priests, nuns, chaste widows and on the dead; and on a woman who was converted from the Arian heresy. Brooks, relying on two British Museum MSS., translated and published these hymns in 1909. 189 Severus also drew up a liturgy beginning with “O God, Creator of all things, especially man;” an order for the Benediction of the Chalice, i.e., the pre-blessed Eucharist; an order for Baptism and the Benediction of water at the Epiphany, together with some supplica- tions. Of the third type of his writings, namely commentar- ies, are a commentary on the Gospel of St. Luke, 190 a commentary on the apocalypse of Ezekiel, 191 as well as Biblical topics and verses which may be found in his homilies and letters referred to by Bar Salibi in his commentary on the Gospels and by Bar Hebraeus in his book The Storehouse of Secrets. Of the fourth type (his homilies) are one hundred and twenty-five homilies called “Homiliae Cathedrales,” preserved in three large volumes at the Vatican and at the British Museum. 192 Three homilies are at the library of the Zafaran monastery and at our (patriarchate) library. Fifty-one of these homilies were translated into French and published in three volumes. 198 The follow- ing are the most famous of these homilies: Six homilies on the Nativity of Our Lord; five homi- lies on the Epiphany; four homilies on Lent; four homilies on Basil and Gregory the Theologian (Nazianzen); three homilies on the Incarnation, deliv- ered at Cyrus; two homilies on the preparation for entering into the Baptistery (one of which covers 22 pages), and on the Ascension, Repentance, and the New Year; the Mother of God; on answering questions propounded to him; on the Synodical letter addressed to Timothy III of Alexandria and on the martyr Drosis. He composed one homily on each of the following subjects: on John the Baptist, on the Palm festival, on the Saturday following Pentecost, on Golden Friday, on the wedding at Cana of Galilee, on the man who was bom blind, on the children of Bethlehem (Massacre of the Innocent), on the Wednesday of the Passion Week, on the Encaenia of the cross, on the commemoration of the dead, on the poor and on strangers, and on the fact there is no disagreement between the Evangelists re- garding the Resurrection of Christ. Also we find one homily apiece on Athanasius of Alexandria, the Confes- sor; on Antonius, the founder of monasticism in Egypt; on the Maccabees; on the protomartyr Thecla; on the martyrs Leontius, Domitius, Sergius, Bacchus, andjulian (who was martyred un der Diocletian ) , T arachus, Probus, Andronicus, Procopius, Phocas, Barlaha and Thallelaeus; on the commemoration of the Saints in the week following Easter, and on the anniversary of his (Severus’) consecration. There is also one homily on each of the following: on his arrival at Qinnesrin and his reception by the townspeople, a valedictory homily delivered upon his intention to visit the villages and monasteries; an admonitory homily addressed to those who, after prayers, resort to the theatre; on the calami- ties reported to have befallen the city of Alexandria and on the number of sinners. He also wrote homilies expounding Biblical verses, such as that based on the saying of the Lord to the Scribes and Pharisees, “But ye say whosoever shall say to his father or to his mother ‘it is a gift;’ 194 a homily on “And Simon’s wife’s mother was taken with a great fever;” 195 a homily on “Who is the greatest in the Kingdom of heaven;” 196 a homily on “A certain man went down fromjerusalem toJericho;” 197 a homily on the period which Our Lord remained in the grave; a homily on the Lord’s saying, “All sins shall be forgiven unto the sons of men, and blasphemers where- with soever they shall blaspheme;” 198 a homily on the verse, “Blessed are the poor in spirit; 199 a homily on the Lord’s saying, “Whom do men say that I the Son of man am?”; 200 a homily on the Apostle Paul’s advice to Timo- thy, “And exercise thyself rather unto godliness;” 201 a homily on the Lord’s saying to Mary Magdalene, Touch me not for I am not yet ascended to my Father;” 202 and homilies on expounding Orthodox doctrines, one of which is on the Trisagion. Of the fifth type of his writings are his innumerable letters, estimated at three thousand and eight hundred, a number no other church father is known to have written. These letters were collected in olden times in thirty-two volumes, of which four were written before his elevation to the patriarchate, ten during his patri- archate (512-518) and nine during his exile (518-538). Of these, only two large volumes survived, one of which is enti tied The Sixth Book of the Selected Letters of Mar Severus ofAntiochi translated by the priest Athanasius of Nisibin in 669 A.D. Between 1904 and 1915 Brooks translated 94 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences into English and published 230 letters in four volumes, some of which have been abridged from the original. 205 All of these letters are splendid and full of abundant theological, legal, historical and administrative infor- mation, which reflect the light of that great and noble soul. These letters number two hundred thirty, most of which are of medium length. One of these letters covers sixty-one pages; a second one covers thirty pages; a third covers twenty-nine; the fourth twenty-six; the fifth four- teen; and the sixth ten pages. The first two volumes contain one hundred twenty-three letters; the third and the fourth, one hundred seven letters compiled from twenty-six old copies (of which twenty are in the British Museum and the rest are in Paris, Rome and Berlin), which date back to the period between the sixth and the thirteenth centuries. 205 Of some of these letters only a few lines survived. Following is a list of these letters: Letters 1 , 205 and 206 were addressed to Constantine, bishop ofLaodicea; Letters 2, 3, 4, 19,23,26,41,and21 1 addressed to Solon, bishop of Selencia in Isauria; Letter 5 to Peter, bishop of Apamea; Letters 6 and 82 to Bishop Nicias; letter 7 to Castor, bishop of Perga; letter 8 to the DuA^Timostratus; letter 9 to Stephen, bishop of Tripo- lis; letter 1 0 to Bishop Eucharius; letter 1 1 to the abbot of the convent of Basus; letter 12 to the priests Cosmas, Polyeuctus and Zeno; Letters 13, 18 and 136 to Eutrechius, bishop of Ayn Zarba; Letters 14, 15, 16 and 151 to Antonius, bishop of Aleppo; Letters 17 and 123 to the chamberlain Misael (Michael); letter 20 to the bishops of the province of Ayn Zarba in the name of a Synod; letter 21 to the chief chamberlain; Letters 22, 42 and 1 12 to the Fathers; Letters 24 and 84 to the presby- ter Theotecnus the archiater; Letters 25, 33, 74, 85 and 87 to Dionysius, metropolitan of Tarsus; Letter 27 to Musonius and Alexander, Vindices of Ayn Zarba; Letter 28 to Philoxene, bishop of Doliche; Letters 29 and 199 to the monks of the convent of Mar Isaac in Gabul; Letters 30 and 39 to the clergy and magistracy of Apamea; letter 31 to the bishops of Phoenicia; letter 32 tojohn, bishop of Alexandria the Less; 205 letter 34 to the bishops of the diocese of Apamea; letter 35 to the priest Eustathius; letter 36 to Eusebius the deacon of Apamea; Letters 37 and 38 to Simon, bishop of Qinncsrin; letter 40 to General Hypatius; letter 43 to Simon, abbot of the convent of St Simon; letter 44 to Eutychianus, magis- trate of Apamea; letter 45 to Conon, “the chaser of thieves” (the chief officer of the police), letter 46 to the clergy of Antaracus; Letters 47 and 108 to Cassianus, bishop of Busra; letter 48 to Philoxenus, bishop of Mabug; Letters 49, 50, 52, 65,91,92, 149 and 150 to the presbyters and abbotsjohn andjohn - the last two letters were addressed to them as well as to the abbotTheodore; Letters 51 and 171 to the priest Philip; letter 53 to the Syrian bishops residing at Alexandria; 206 letter 55 to Theodore, abbot of the monastery of Romanus; letter 56 to Bishop Proclus; Letters 57 and 58 to Bishop Didymus; letter 59 tojulian, abbotof the convent of Mar Basus; letter 60 to Photius and Andrew, priests and abbots of the convents of Caria; 207 Letters 63 and 69 to the deacon Misael; letter 64 to the patricians; letter 66 to the Orthodox laity of Hims (Emesa); letter 148 to the clergy of Hims and the magistracy; letter 67 to the Count Anstasius, the son of Sergius; letter 68 to Ammanius and Epagathus; Letters 70, 80, 121, 172, 175, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, and 230 to the patrician lady Caesaria; 208 letter 71 to Zachariah of Pelusium; Letters 72 and 195 to Ammonius, presbyter of Alexandria; Letters 73 and 169 to Dioscorus, patriarch of Alexan- dria; letter 75 to Cosmas, abbot of the Monastery of Mar Cyrus; letter 76 to the Count John of Antaradus; letter 77 to the abbotjohn Canopites; Letters 78 and 88 to the Orthodox laity of Antioch; Letters 79 and 111 to the lector and notary Andrew; letter 81 tojohn the magis- trate; letter 83 to the conven t in T agais; letter 86, a noble letter in 30 pages, against those who claim that it is necessary to baptize or anoint afresh those who have renounced the doctrine of the two natures in Christand re-adhered to the doctrine of one nature in Christ; Letters 89 and 100 to Simon, abbot of the Monastery of Talada; letter 90 to Simon, abbot of the Monasntery of Isaac; letter 93 to Bishops Proclus and Eusebius; letter 94 to Bishopsjohn, Philoxenus and Thomas who lived on the mountain of Mardin; Letters 95 and 203 to Sergius, bishop of Cyrus and Marion, bishop of Sura; Letters96, 133 and 135 to Bishop Eleusinius; Letters 97, 208, and 209 to the lector Aschelaus ofTyre; letter 98 to the deaconess and abbess Valeriana; letter 101 to Nonnus, bishop of Seleucia; letter 1 02 to Victor, bishop ofPhiladelphia; letter 103 to Stephen, bishop of Apamea; letter 104 to the wife of Calliopius the patrician; letter 105 to the youthful monk Eustathius; letter 106 to Isidora; letter 107 to the lector Stephen; letters 109 and 197 to the advocate Aurelius; letters 110 and 196 to the advocatejohn of Busra in answer to two legal questions; letter 1 13 to Theodore, bishop of Olbe; letter 114 to the Countess Thecla; letter 115 to Alypius; letter 116 to a lady which he wrote on behalf of an abbot for the solution of a legal question; 209 letter 117 to Theodore the magistrate; letter 1 18 to Conon the Silentiary; letter 119 to Theodore, a Byzantine monk; letters 120 and 1 61 to the monks of the Monastery of Mar Basus; Letters 1 22 and 191 to Georgia, the daughter of the governess Anstastia; letters 124, 125, 126 and 181 to the Count Oecumenius; letters 127 and 224 to Simius the librar- ian; letter 1 28 to the advocate Eusebius; letters 1 29, 1 30, 131, and 132 to Marun, the lector of Ayn Zarba; letters 137 and 139, a protest to Thomas his secretary; letter 131 to the wandering monks; letters 142, 144, 180 and 210 to the Ceuw/Isidor; letter 146 to the presbyters and abbots Jonathan, Samuel andjohn the Stylite and the rest of the Orthodox laity in the churches of al-Anbar and Hiratal-Numan; letter 147 tojohn the Byzantine on the meaning of the three immersions at Baptism and on the Chrism; letter 152, 189 and 190 to the priest Victor; 95 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences letter 153 to the advocate and physician Sergius; letter 154 to the Orthodox brethren at Tyre; letter 155 to the priest and abbot Neon; letter 1 56 to the priest and abbot Elisha; letter 157, a universal letter to the monks of the East; letter 158 to Isaac the advocate; letter 159 to the monk Charisius; letter 159 to the priests Peter, Ammonius, Olympidorus concerning the naming of Peter, bishop Alexandria; 210 letter 160 to the presbyters of Alexandria; letter 162 to Musonius, bishop of Miloe in Isauria; letter 163 to the advocate Theophane; letter 164 to Urbane Grammaticus; letter 165 to Sateric, bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia; letters 1 66, 1 67 and 168 to the advocate Eupraxius; letter 170 to Eumnituis the chamberlain; letter l7l to the priest monk Philip; letter 176 to Zenobius; letter 177 to the priest Andrew; letter 178 to John, abbot of the Monastery of Mar Hanania; letter 179 to the nunneries; letters 182, 183 and 184 to the chamberlain Euphraxius; letter 185 to Phocas and Euphraxius the chamberlain; letters 186, 187 and 188 to the deaconess Anastasia on the question of the true Faith; letter 188 to the County Dorotheus; letter 191 to the Patricia Georgia and her daughter; letter 192 to Bishop Philoxenus; letter 194 to the gen- eral Probus; letter 198 tojohn; letters 200 and 201 to the Count Sergius the chief physician; letter 202 to the priest Leontius; letter 204 to the advocate Ammonius of Busra; letter 207 to Proclus; letters 220 and 221 to Thomas, bishop of Marash (Germanicia) ; letter 222 to Theotecnus; letter 223 to the deaconess and abbess Jannia; letter 225 to Euraneus; letter 226 to Zachariah; letter 227 to Metraeus and letter 228 to Heracliana. In addition to these are a letter which he wrote to some citizens of Antioch upon his departure for Egypt be- cause of the persecution of the 25th of September, 518; 211 two Synodical letters tojohn II of Alexandria 212 and Theodosius of Alexandria in 513; 215 two letters to Anthimus of Constantinople and to Theodosius; 214 three letters tojulian, bishop of Halicarnassus; 215 three letters to Sergius Grammaticus; a letter to the Emperor Justinian; 216 a letter to the priests and monks upon his departure from the capital; 217 a letter on the state of souls and spirits before and after the Resurrection and in the last Judgment, beginning thus, “Our beloved in the Lord, you may know that the souls and spirits; 218 a letter to the monk Peter who claimed the corruptibility of the soul; 219 and four letters mentioned by the ascetic monk Sergius of the Monastery of Micaea - one to the advocate Theophane, one to the Orthodox laity of Tyre concerning Epiphianus, their bishop, one to the magis- trate of Tyre and one to Marina, bishop of Beirut. 220 Having learnt about the works of this great dignitary and his comprehension of the principles and branches of sciences which testily that he was not only unique in his generation, but also unequaled among the patri- archs of Antioch who preceded or succeeded him, let the judicious reader fairly judge his (Scverus’) preju- diced opponents who underestimated his excellence and even forced Justinian to bum his writings and severely punish those who copied or possessed them. As a result, his Greek writings were lost, but their Syriac translations survived, thanks to the effort of our schol- ars. Whenever published, these writings brought forth anew evidence of the excellence of their author and the cogency of his decisive proofs. Also, they turned the attention of the scholars from the traditional disparage- ment of him to admiration and respect. Gustave Bardy stated in summary the following: “In his activity and far- reaching endeavor, Severus resembles Athanasius the ‘Apostolic Father’ in many aspects. He was opposed by many intellectual writers of all parties, but he refuted them. It has been his writings which have been pub- lished to this date (1928) have proved that he was one of the men who possessed the highest abilities and true determination in an age marred by a great deal of degeneration and abasement.” 221 48. John bar Aphtonya (d. 538) John bar Aphtonya is unquestionably one of the eminent, eloquent, and noble monks and abbots of Edessa. Generous, and chivalrous, he was born the fifth child among his brothers, shortly after the death of his father. Thus he was raised by his virtuous mother. After receiving some learning, she had him enter the Monas- tery of St. Thomas in Seleucia while he was still very young, motivated by piety and true faith. At the monas- tery he was trained in the monastic life and studied religious and logical sciences. The magnanimous and commendable character as well as the beautiful virtues he showed after assuming the monastic habit and after his consecration as a priest, turned attention to him; and as a result, he was chosen to head his brethren the monks. Despite the afflictions which befell the monas- tery because of the tyranny of Justin I in 521, he admin- istered the monastery with utmost patience and wis- dom. Later, he moved with his monks to the Jazira on the left bank of the Euphrates opposite Europas (Jarabulus) , where he founded in 530 a monastery on the site known as the Monastery of Qinnesrin (The Eagles’ Nest) or the Monastery of Bar Aphtonya. This monastery became a very famous institution for monas- ticism and for the sciences of philology, philosophy and theology. From it graduated the most illustrious Syrian scholars. In the year 533-534, Bar Aphtonya journeyed to Constantinople, where he served as a secretary to an ecclesiastical council held in that city. He died at his monastery on the 8th of November, 538, at the age of fifty-five. He is commemorated by the Church. Anbajohn was well-versed in Syriac and in Greek. In Greek he wrote a commentary on the book Song of Songs 222 and a treatise on the doctrine which the Ortho- dox submitted to the Emperorjustinian. He also com- posed five eloquent manilhs on the miracles of Christ the Lord; a hymn on the mystical Washing of the Feet; 96 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences a hymn on the Himyarite martyrs; nine hymns on the Nativity of Our Lord and on the Resurrection; three hymns eulogizing Severus of Antioch and a hymn for burying the dead. He is also thought to have composed three antiphons for the reception of the Holy Eucha- rist. 225 His writings were translated into Syriac. To him was also ascribed the lengthy biography of Severus which, in fact, does not belong to him. 49. Simon of Beth Arsham 224 (d. 540) One of the most eminent church dignitaries who fought for the Orthodox faith, his fame spread at the beginning of the sixth century. His life story was written byjohn of Ephesus, who conversed with him for a long time and had this to say about him: 225 “He (Simon) was a priestwell-versed in the science of religion and a habitual reader. He was also a zealous, fluent and keen disputant, who devoted his life to support the Orthodox truth. He opposed theNestorians and refuted them by his proofs. Also, he disputed with the Manicheans, the Marcionists and the Daysanites in Persia and the Eutychians. In fact, he was called ‘The Persian Disputant.’ He preached Christianity in Hirat al-Numan, where many Arabs responded to his call, and a church was built by their notables. He also converted to Christianity three chiefs of the Magians and baptized them, but they were martyred. He journeyed to the land beyond Persia and brought the faith to heathens and Magians. For his efforts, the bishops of the East re- warded him by investing him shordy before 503 with the episcopate of the town of Beth Arsham situated on the Tigris near Seleucia. He fought the good fight for the cause of religion and in support of the Orthodox believers, but was detained in Nisibin for seven years, an adversity which he endured with padence. After his release, he journeyed for seven more years to many countries and visited Constantinople three dmes. He was chosen by the Emperor Anastasius to be a delegate to the Persian King, to discuss with him the removal of affliction from the believers. The purpose of his third journey to Constantinople was to see the Empress Theodora, but he died, an old man, at the capital around 540.” Mar Simon wrote many books and treatises in refuta- tion of heretics. He also wrote many letters on the Faith, addressed to the believers in all countries. Of these we have two lengthy and magnificent letters. In the first one, he incorporated the detailed conditions of Barsouma of Nisibin and the rise of the heresy of Nestorius and its spread into Persia and tire closing down of the School of Edessa. Written in 5 1 1 , this letter is considered the oldest document about these two events. In the second letter, addressed to Simon, abbot of the Gabbul monastery in 524, he related that he had accompanied the envoy of Emperor Justin I to al- Mundhir, King of the Lakhmid Arabs of al-Hira. 226 He and the envoy met the King at Ramlah. They learned from him that he had received a letter from Masruq, the Jewish King of the Himyarites, stating in detail the torture which he inflicted upon the Christians ofNajran, capital of al-Yaman and his slaughter of them. Upon his return to al-Hira, Simon learned the details of the martyrdom of the nobles of Najran, the chief and noblest of whom was al-Harith ibn Kab. Simon urged the bishop to contact the emperor in order to lift the affliction from the Christians in al-Yaman and Tiberias. This letter was quoted by the historians Zachariah, Dionysius and Michael the Great. 227 Simon also com- posed a liturgy which has been ascribed by some scribes to Philoxenus. 50. The Translators of the Canons and Laws of Kings Th e Emperors Constan tin e an d Theodosius the Great and Leo I issued canons and laws which some Syrian scholars translated into their language, deriving from them commands used in the civil code of the church. We do not know exactly in what age the translation of these laws was made. However, Wright thinks that this translation was made in the first half of the sixth cen- tury, while Bruns holds that it was made by a monk from Mabug around 475 or 477. These canons have already been published in two copies. 228 We have also found in the code of Basibrina, the laws enacted by the Christian kings for the purchase of lands and slaves, for the regulation of dowries, for the division of inheritance among brothers and for wills of the deceased. These laws cover thirteen large pages which, we think, were probably translated in this same century. 229 51. Samuel of Ras Ayn Samuel was a layman who lived at Constantinople in the first half of the sixth century. According to Bar Hebraeus, he knew all the Greek sciences. He wrote a sixty-four page treatise against the Dyophysites (a sect of the Syrian church) , who believe in two natures in Christ (still distinct after the Incarnation). 250 52. The Count Oecumenius Living in the first half of the sixth century, this noble man was a strong adherent of Orthodoxy, as is testified by the four letters which Mar Severus wrote to him. He wrote a commentary on the Apocalypse of John in six sections. 251 53. Thomas, bishop of Germanicia (D. 542) Thomas was ordained a bishop of Marash (Germanicia) at the beginning of the sixth century. In 519 he was banished from his See because of his belief in one nature of Christ. After 520, he wrote, by order of the Patriarch Severus, a letter to the priests Paul and Elijah, heads of the ascetics on the mountain ofMardin, and another letter to the priest John, abbot of the Monastery of Eusebius in Kafr Barta near Apamea. 252 97 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences After spending twenty-three years in exile, he died at Samosata and was buried in the monastery of Oinnesrin in 542. 54. Zachariah Rhetor Zachariah, better known as “Rhetor” or “Scholasticus,” was a school mate and a close friend of St. Severus. He was born at Gazza and studied with Severus the sciences of grammar and rhetoric at the School of Alexandria between 485-487, and then jurisprudence and philoso- phy at the famous law school of Beirut. Around 5 16 he began writing his (Severus’) biography from his birth to his elevation to the See of Antioch. Possessing an elo- quent and thorough style, he made the introduction of this biography a form of dialogue in which he refuted the accusations of his (Severus’) opponents. This biog- raphy was translated into Syriac as well as French and was published by Kugener. It is full of useful informa- tion. For a time, he (Zachariah) practised law in Constantinople and after 527 he became the bishop of the island of Mitylene also known as Lesbos, (Midylene) whose name was distorted by some scribes from Mitylene to Milytene and even Melitene (Malatia) ; thus, Zachariah was erroneously attributed to Melitene. From his noble pen we have a detailed profane history as well as an ecclesiastical history from 450 to 49 1 , which he wrote in Greek at the request of Eupraxius, a member of the Court. It comprises four books, con- taining the events of the Church and the Henoticon of Zeno. Book one consists of thirteen chapters, part two, of twelve chapters; part three, of twelve chapters; and part four, of seven chapters - all of which cover one hundred and ten pages (slightly abridged by the Syrian translator) . Its style is pleasant and smooth. This history, whose original Greek form was lost, was incorporated by a historian into his collection, which shall be referred to later. 233 Beside this history, Zachariah also wrote the biographies of Isaiah the Ascetic, Peter, bishop of Mayuma, and Theodore, bishop of Ausana. The latter biography has been lost He died after the year 556. Duval and Kugener hold that the author of this history is Zachariah Rhetor and that the biographer of Severus is Zachariah the lawyer, bishop of Mitylene. The old Greek writers, however, have confused these two persons, and the Orientalists are not in agreement regarding this problem. 55. Daniel of Salh (542 A.D.) Daniel of Salh was known to have lived in the firsthalf of the sixth century. Some contemporary writers, how- ever, thought erroneously that he was born at Salh, a village in Tur Abdin. 234 There was more than one town of the name of Salh, one of which was al-Salhiyya in the south of the upper Jazira, which dates back to Roman times and whose ruins could be seen near the village of Abu Kamal. Archaeological discoveries are being found in it today. At the beginning of his career, Daniel was an abbot of the Monastery of Salhin to which his generic name, i.e., Salh is more correctly attributed. It was during that period that he wrote a letter to the monks of the Monastery of Mar Basus in which he mentioned twelve kinds of what was called “corruption,” as a result of the disputation which flared up at that time. 235 According to the Patriarch Bahnam of Hidl and the monk David of Hims and others, he was ordained a bishop of Tall Mawzalt shortly after the year 542. It is even mentioned in his commentary on the Psalms that he is a native of the city of Talla. Daniel was one of the best church dignitaries of his time in learning and in knowledge of the Holy Bible. Before he became bishop in 542, he wrote a detailed commentary on the Psalms in three volumes, each one containing fifty psalms, in answer to the request of the monk-priest John, abbot of the Monastery of Eusebius at Kafr Barta near Apamea. His commentary is purely spiritualistic and theological and he seldom quotes the Fathers of the Church. His style is smooth and powerful. There was a complete copy of his commentary in Hbab which has been lost; two intact copies are in each of our patriarchate libraries and in Constantinople. 236 Three more copies are at the British Museum, containing the first and the second volumes of this commentary and another imperfect copy is in Beirut, containing most of the first volume. 237 This commentary was abridged by David of Hims in 1461, notin the tenth century, asj. B. Chabot erroneously supposed. Of this abridgement there are copies at Bartulli, the Zafaran’s monastery, St Matthew’s monastery, Boston, Cambridge, Mass., and Birmingham. 238 The lengthy form of this commentary was translated into imperfect Arabic in the middle of the eighteenth century. 239 Daniel also wrote a commen- tary on the book of the Ecclesiastes. This commentary was quoted by the monk Severus in his collection. We read one verse of this commentary in the Book of the Didascalia. He also wrote treatises on the plagues in- flicted by God on the Egyptians. I have no idea of the year of his death. 56. The Writer of the History of the Himyarite Martyrs An anonymous Syrian historian (most likely in the middle of the sixth century) wrote in solid Syriac style the chronicles of the Orthodox Himyarite Arab martyrs ofNajran (520-524). In his book he included the names of 472 male and female valiant martyrs who suffered under Masruq, the tyrantjewish King. This chronicle is considered unique and interesting, for it contains the history of Christianity among the Arabs. It seems that copies of this chronicle were so rare that no later historian knew of it until it chanced to reach the hand of Axel Moberg a Swedish scholar. He found a copy of it by accident, for its pages were glued and used as a cover of another book. In recognizing the chronicle, he 98 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences was able to salvage about sixty pages (about half of the book). These salvaged pages also contain an index of the forty-nine chapters of the chronicle transcribed by the priest Stephen the son of Matta the Syrian, who finished it at the church of St. Thomas in al-Qaryatayn 240 on April 10, 932. 241 He translated it in to English and had it published in 1924, thus rendering a commendable favor to our Syriac literature. 57. John II, abbot of the Monastery of Qinnesrin (544) The Anbajohn II succeeded Father Alexanderous as abbot of the Monastery of Qinnesrin. He was a man of letters, well-versed in Greek and Syriac. In 544, he wrote a detailed biography of Severus of Antioch in Greek in fifty-seven pages, thus immortalizing his name. This biography was translated into Syriac shortly after it was written down. 58. The Anonymous Writer of the Monastery of Qinnesrin One of the first literary fruits of the Monastery of Qinnesrin was an eloquent Syriac eulogy delivered by one of the monks in the fifth decade of the sixth century, in behalf ofjohn bar Aphtonya, the abbot and founder of the Monastery of Qinnesrin. In this eulogy, the monk incorporated the life and good deeds of Bar Aphtonya in a vivacious and pleasant style. It was pub- lished by Nau in 1902, and translated into Arabic and published by this author . 24Z 59. The Monk Elijah (Iliyya) The monk-priest Elijah was a companion ofjohn bar Cursus, bishop of Tall Mawzalt (519-538). After the death of this confessor, Elijah wrote a detailed biogra- phy of bar Cursus at the request of two noblemen, Sergius and Paul. This biography was published by Brooks. 243 60. Moses of Agel (550) The monk Moses of Agel derived his generic name from the town of Agel north of Diyarbakr. He became known around 525. He was another of the distinguished scholars in the knowledge of Greek and Syriac. He made a Syriac version of the book of Cyril of Alexandria entitled Glaphyra (Mysteries), at the request of the monk Paphnotius. Moses’ answer and portions of the book Glaphyra have reached us. 244 He also translated into Syriac the apocryphal story ofjoseph the Righteous and his wife Asyath or Asnith, a piece of sheer elo- quence. 245 He is thought to have lived until the year 550. 24fi 61. The Syrian Monk Thought to be the Writer of the History Ascribed to Zachariah This monk was an Orthodox writer who was still living in 569. He compiled in Syriac a significan t histori- cal collection in twelve books, comprising two volumes and covering 462 pages. 247 This collection contains the stories ofjoseph the Righteous, his wife, the sleeping youths of Ephesus (Ahl al-Kahf) , Sylvester, the Pope of Rome, and his conversion of Caesar Constantine to Christianity. It also contains the entire history of Zachariah Rhetor, formerly mentioned, the revelation of the repository of the bones of the proto-martyr, Nicodemus, Gamaliel and his son Habib and the chronicles of the Himyarite martyrs. Also included are the Henoticon of the Emperor Zeno, the Byzantine- Persian Wars, the insurrection of the Isaurians, the heresy ofjulian the phantasiast (Julian ofHalicamassus) and the letter which he exchanged with Severus of Antioch. Also in the collection are an account of the insurrection of the inhabitants of Constantinople, the invitation of the Orthodox bishops to the capital in the hope of achieving unity, the letter of Severus to the emperor, the conquest of Ifriqiyya (Africa), the captiv- ity of Rome and the coming of Agapetus to Constantinople. Besides these, we find the letter of Severus to the priests and monks of the East; the journey of Ephraim of Amid to the East and his persecution of its citizens as well as their persecution by Ibrahim, metropolitan of Amid; the church which Ephraim built in Antioch and his journey to Palestine and Egypt; the letter of Rabula of Edessa to Gemellinus of Perrhe; the destruction of Rome by the barbarians and the descrip- tion of the buildings of Rome; the delineation of the habitable world by Ptolemy; the spread of Christianity beyond the Caspian Sea; the introduction of writing into the language of the Huns, etc., and the texts of the letters exchanged between the Patriarchs Severus, Theodosiusand An thimus. 248 This anonymous author is perhaps the same one who translated the history of Zachariah into Syriac. This book was published by Land and then translated into Latin by Brooks and published in two volumes between 1919 and 1921. 62. Mar Ahudemeh (d. 575) Ahudemeh is the pride of the Church of the East and one of its noblest dignitaries because of his intelligence, knowledge, piety, and support of Orthodoxy. Bom at Balad, 249 he was consecrated a bishop for the diocese of Baarbaya, situated between Nisibin and Sinjar. In 559, he was elevated by Marjacob Baradaeus to the office of the Metropolitan of the lands of the East, and set to work briskly in calling the nomad Arabs who dwelt in that region and in the abodes of Rabia to Christianity. He converted a great number of them to Christianity and built two monasteries and some churches for them. He was also honored by God by miracles to support his preaching even to the Magians. Among these Magians was a prince from the royal family, whose conversion angered the King Khosrau I Anushirwan; he impris- oned this saint, who finally received martyrdom on the Second of August, 575. His body was carried to Qronta 99 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences opposite to Takrit. He was counted as the first Metro- politan of the Sea of the East after it had been usurped by the Nestorians. 250 Mar Ahudemeh was a philosopher and a theologian. He wrote a book of definitions on logical matters and treatises on religious free will, on the soul, on man as a microcosm and on man as consisting of soul and body. This latter treatise was published together with his lengthy biography. 251 He is also mentioned by later authorities as a writer of grammar based on the Greek method. 63. Sergius, the Ascetic Monk (577) Sergius the monk was a recluse in a monastery of Nicaea and a disciple of the priest John of Ras Ayn a distinguished aged ascetic. He received a satisfactory background in the study of theology and ecclesiastical history. Around the year 577, he supported the case of Paul II, patriarch of Antioch, by writing a seventy-four page Syriac treatise of nine chapters in which he refuted the allegations of his opponent John the Lame, 252 who had left the Monastery of Basus. He also reproduced in this treatise the article of his opponent, who was oppos- ing the previously mentioned patriarch after he had been dethroned by the Syrian Church. 253 64. Mar Jacob Baradaeus (d. 578) One of the most famous Church Fathers for his godliness and piety, the greatest Apostolic fighter in support of the true faith, he attained the summit of religious and austere asceticism. He was born at Tall Mawzalt, the son of a priest named Theophilus bar Manu. While still young he became a monk at the Monastery of Fsilta in the neighborhood of his home- land. At this monastery he mastered the Syriac and Greek languages and penetrated deeply into religious books and theological science as well as asceticism. In 528, he journeyed to Constantinople, where he was consecrated a metropolitan for Edessa, the country of al-Sham and Asia, by the laying of the hands of Theodosius, patriarch of Alexandria in 543 (or as has also been related, in 544) , at the request of the Arab king al-Harith ibnjabalah al-Ghassani and the Empress Theodora. Then he went to Alexandria and with the assistance of some of the bishops, ordained two bishops. From Alexandria, he traveled incognito into Syria, Ar- menia, Cappadocia, Cilicia, Isauria, Pamphilia, Lycaonia, Lycia, Phrygia, Cana, Asia Minor and the islands of Cyprus, Rhodes, Chios and Mitylene, and also into Mesopotamia, Persia and Alexandria, instructing and encouraging the Orthodox believers. Authorized by the patriarch, he consecrated twenty-seven bishops and ordained a few thousand deacons and priests, not for- getting to return quite a few times to his monastery. He continued this work for thirty-five years, indefatigably fighting the good fight for the Church of God, which he supported in the time of adversity until he died at the Monastery of Romanus or the Monastery of Cassian on July 30, 578 and was commemorated by the Church. 254 Jacob drew up a liturgy in fifteen pages beginning with “O Lord, the most holy Father of peace,” and several letters, four of which were published in the Syriac Documents 255 - three addressed tojohn ofEphesus and others, 256 and a general letter to the bishops and priests which is mentioned in his lengthy biography. 65. Cyriacus of Talla From the pen of Cyriacus, metropolitan of Talla, we have compact and graceful supplications alphabetically arranged in no more than two, three or four lines. These supplications were recited between the marmiths, i.e. a number of psalms which the Syrians divide into fifteen marmiths. These marmiths, which cover three pages, are found in the British Museum MS. 14525, transcribed in the tenth century. 257 In the same method he also wrote other supplications to be recited between the marmiths at the festivals of the Nativity of Our Lord, Epiphany, Lent, Palm Sunday, the Resurrection - actu- ally at any time. Some of these marmiths survive in three pages of a second manuscript, although because of the age of the manuscript, these marmiths are quite want- ing. 258 One of these marmiths is recited privately by the priest at the beginning of the celebration of the Holy Eucharist. It begins thus, “Make us worthy O Lord God to appear before thy holy altar with knowledge, awe and good order.” We also found two supplications in some choral books, one for the morning prayer and the other for the dead. Their composition resembles the style of Cyriacus and his eloquence. 259 We have forgotten to put this author along with the authors of church services where he belongs. However, judging from the nature of his composition, he must have lived in the second half of the sixth century. He may have succeeded Daniel of Salh to the See of Talla, either as the predecessor or the successor of Metropolitan John III, who died on the 5 th of May, 591. 66. Sergius bar Karya (the Short) (580). Sergius bar Karya (the Short) is known as the aqran (“he of the joined eyebrows”). He studied sciences at the Monastery of Bar Aphtonya where he became a monk, then a priest and finally an abbot. In 544, or 545, he was consecrated a bishop of Harran by Mar Jacob (Baradaeus). Beside his knowledge of Greek and logic, he possessed an elegant Syriac style and was considered one of the proficient writers of his time. While an abbot, he translated into Syriac the Greek biography ofSeverus of Antioch by his predeces- sor John of Talla. This biography, which covers fifty- seven pages, was translated into French and published by Kugener. Bar Karya also wrote a treatise on the Holy Chrism 260 and issued ten canons regarding excommuni- cated clergy. 261 He was still living in the year 580, but died shortly after. 262 100 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences 67. Paul II, patriarch of Antioch (d. 581 ) Paul was a native of Alexandria of a Coptic origin from the family of Ukama. He became a monk at the Outer Monastery of al-Jubb (Gubba Baraya) and was educated in the literatures of both the Greek and the Syriac languages. He was trained in the path of worship and later became a secretary to the Patriarch Theodosius. Also, he became the abbot of a convent at Alexandria. About 550, he was consecrated a patriarch of Antioch, but was deposed around 575 for his participation with the Malkites (the king’s party) in the hope of achieving unity between them and Antioch. But when he was disappointed in his hope, he returned to his former life. His death is thought to have occurred in the year 581. Paul wrote two Synodical letters to Theodosius and Theodore, patriarchs of Alexandria; 265 a letter to the Metropolitansjacob and Theodoras; 254 a letter tojohn, abbot of the Monastery of bar Aphtonya in November, 576, which had been mentioned by Sergius, the ascetic monk 285 and a letter to Mar Jacob. 266 He also wrote a treatise containing the disputation between him and John of Sermin during his detention at the Monastery of Ibrahim, 267 which might have been the protest men- tioned by the monk Sergius. 68. The Priest Cyrus of Batnan (582 ) The priest Cyrus of Batnan near Saruj wrote at Edessa, a profane and an ecclesiastical history in four- teen treatises. These cover the events which took place during the rule of the Emperors Justin II and Tiberius until the year of the author’s death, that is, from 565 to 582 A.D. This history was mentioned by Dionysius of Tall Mahre in the introduction to his history, which in turn was quoted by Michael the Great. Michael admit- ted that he had copied from Cyrus’ history some events which agree with reality. 266 He also mentioned the writer, whose historywas lost, and indicated thathe died around that time (i.e., 582) . We know no more than this about his affairs. 69. John of Ephesus (d. 587) One of the famous dignitaries of his time and the author of interesting historical writings, he was an indefatigable and industrious man, and above all, a propagandist and active missionary of Christianity. 269 John was most likely born at Agel in the province of Amid around theyear507. Hecameclose to death when he was two years old , but was healed by the prayer of Mar Maran, the sty lite ascetic in theMonastery ofAra Rabtha (The Great Land) at Agel. When he was four years old, his family sent him to Marun’s monastery in compliance with the ascetic’s order. He remained at the monastery until he became fifteen years old. At this time, the ascetic (Marun) died, andjohn joined the monks at the Monastery ofjohn the Iberian north of Amid, which was founded at the end of the fourth century. This monas- tery gained popularity and was comprised of many monks. At this monastery, John studied the Holy Scrip- tures, practiced the spiritual life and learned the two languages popular at that time. In 529, he was ordained a deacon by John, metropolitan of Talla, and then became a monk. When the monks were peresecuted and dispersed, he departed with them, but in 530 they were allowed to return to their monastery. John, how- ever, wentabout visiting the monasteries and the monks’ cells, conversing with the most virtuous ascetics, learn- ing from them and recording their chronicles. In 532, he journeyed to Antioch, then in 534, to Egypt and to Constantinople in 535. In the following years he shared the fate of monks who were severely persecuted and tortured by Ephraim of Amid and the tyrant Abraham bar Kili. In 540 and 541, he traveled to Constantinople and Mesopotamia and then returned to the capital. In 542, he was chosen by Justinian, who had great confi- dence in him because of his zeal and ambition, to preach to the heathens in Asia Minor, Caria, Phrygia and Lydia and call them to Christianity. 270 Around the year 558, he was ordained by Jacob Baradaeus - as a metropolitan of the Orthodox community in Ephesus, from which he took his generic name. He took another generic name from Asia Minor. For nearly twenty-nine years he carried out his mission and achieved great success by converting eighty thousand heathens to Chris- tianity and founded, according to one narrative, ninety- two churches and ten monasteries, and according to another one, ninety-nine churches and twelve monas- teries. 271 In these efforts, he was assisted by Deutrius, whom he ordained a bishop of Caria. After the death of Theodosius in 566,John became the head of the Ortho- dox community at Constantinople and the rest of the Byzantine country. 272 However, in 57l .Justin II as well as the Malkite bishops of the capital severely tortured the Orthodox citizenry, among whom was John. He was detained in an exhausting prison and then banished to an island for forty months and nine days. He was also placed under surveillance for more than three years. 275 He was arrested for a second time, released and then arrested for a third time under Tiberius. He was ban- ished from the capital with his companions on Christ- mas Day of 578. 274 He died around 586 or 587, and was styled as “The Converter ofHeathens,” the “Idol Breaker” and the “Ecclesiastical Historian.” Mar John wrote an ecclesiastical history in three parts, each comprising six books. The first and the second parts begin from the time ofjulius Caesar and extend until 571 A.D.; the third part contains the chronicles of the church from 571 to 585, in 418 pages. The first part has been lost; the second was entirely incorporated into the history written by the monk of Zuqnin in 775, of which portions have been separately published. The third part, which he wrote while at the prison of Chalcedon, has come down to us with several chapters missing. This part has a unique copy tran- scribed in the seventh century. 275 It was first published 101 History of Syriac Literature and Sciences by Cureton in 1853 and then translated into English by Payne Smith in 1860, and into German by Schonfelder in 1862. It was republished by Brooks and also trans- lated into Latin. The author, however, admitted that this part is mis-arranged because he wrote it in a time of adversity and suffering. He intended if circumstances changed for the better to re-organize it. The signifi- cance of his history stems from the fact that it contained